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THE 


Motorman’s  Guide 


A Practical  Treatise  on  Street  Railway  Motors. 


Car  Wiring.  — The  Proper  Way  to  Cut  Out  Motors. — 
Operation  and  Care  of  K Controllers.  — Short 
Circuits  and  How  to  Locate  Them.  — Incan- 
descent Light  Circuits.  — Westing- 
house  Motors. — General  Electric 
800  Railway  Motor,  and  Ser- 
ies Parallel  Control- 
ler, Etc.,  Etc. 


DESCRIPTIVE  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  DIAGRAMS. 


By  J.  W.  Gayetty. 


CHICAGO: 

LAI  R D <&  LEE, 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in 
the  year  1896, 

By  J.  W.  Gayetty, 

at  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  d% 
Washington,  D.  C. 


Copyright  1898,  by  Wm.  H.  Lee. 


£2f.33 

\ 

ALTRELD  HALL  STACKS 

INDEX. 

PAGE 

Car  Wiring 12 

Conclusion 115 

Description  First  and  Second  Notches 93 

Description  Third  Notch 95 

Description  Fourth  Notch. 97 

Description  Fifth  and  Sixth  Notches 99 

Economy  is  Wealth Ill 

Electric  Motor  Force,  or  How  Armature  Ro- 
tation is  Obtained 48 

General  Electric  Company’s  Series  Parallel 

Controller  88 

General  Electric  800  Railway  Motors 80 

General  Information  on  Westinghouse  Motors  53 
How  to  Locate  Trouble  in  a Car  While  Run- 
ning on  the  Road 17 

How  to  Locate  Trouble  in  a Reversing  Switch 

and  How  to  Overcome  it 24  . 

How  to  Reverse  a Car  in  Order  to  Obtain 

Best  Effects 26 

How  to  Increase  the  Speed  of  a Motor  by 

Changing  Two  Connections 53 

Illustration  of  T.  & H.  Car  Wiring, 114 

Information  on  Incandescent  Light  Circuits..  41 

679348 


PAGE 


Instructions  for  Operating  and  Care  of  K 

Controllers 22 

Introduction 5 

Information  on  Open  Circuits  and  Sparking 

Brushes 65 

Points  of  Interest  to  All 73 

Points  About  Motors  that  Should  be  Exam- 
ined Often 30 

Proper  Methods  for  the  Government  of  Mo- 
tors  103 

Short  Circuits — What  a Short  Circuit  Means 

and  How  to  Locate  It 34 

Some  Questions  Which  You  May  be  Called 

Upon  to  Answer  . . . 68 

Terminal  or  Field  Wires 16 

The  Proper  Way  to  Cut  Out  Different  Mo- 
tors  ...  19 

Westinghouse  Fuse  Block 61 

Westinghouse  Lightning  Arrester 62 

Westinghouse  Lamp  Circuit 63 

Westinghouse  Series  Parallel  Controllers. . . . 106 


Introduction. 


In  presenting  this  pocket  edition  to 
the  public  I will  say  that  it  has  been  the 
author's  intention  to  confine  himself 
exclusively  to  points  of  interest  to  the 
Motormen  of  the  country,  realizing,  as  I 
do,  that  there  is  not,  nor  has  there  ever 
been,  anything  written  which  would  dis- 
close to  this  class  the  knowledge  they 
seek. 

In  order  to  do  this  it  is  my  intention 
to  define  everything  pertaining  to  street 
R.  R.  Motors  in  the  simplest  manner, 
omitting  all  algebraic  and  other  terms 
such  as  have  served  in  all  books 
previously  written,  to  prevent  you  from 
comprehending  their  meaning.  And  if 
strict  attention  is  paid  to  the  teachings 


5 


and  instructions  herein  contained,  you 
will  be  able  to  withstand  the  most  rigid 
examination  from  your  Superintendent 
real  or  anticipated,  as  well  as  to  make  an 
intelligible  report  of  the  defects  and  the 
work  to  be  done  on  your  car  and  motors. 
It  is  not  generally  known,  but  it  is  a fact, 
nevertheless,  that  all  Motormen  on  all 
street  railways  are  to  be  examined  by  a 
State  Board  of  Examiners  yet  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  of  each  State, 
as  to  their  qualifications  and  capabilities 
to  hold  the  positions  they  are  now  filling. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  those  found 
wanting  will  have  to  go,  and  those  who 
have  devoted  a little  of  their  leisure  time 
to  profitable  study,  will  succeed  them. 
It  is  in  order,  right  here,  to  state  that  the 
man  of  influence  is  going  to  have  some 
hard  studying  and  become  posted,  or 
step  down  and  out,  as  the  pull  cannot 
hold  him.  He  must  possess  a thorough 
knowledge  of  his  business,  or  those  who 
do  will  certainly  succeed  him. 

It  is  indeed  necessary  to  repeat  here 

6 


that  old  adage,  “a  still  tongue  makes  a 
wise  head;”  and  what  is  meant  by  using 
the  saying  is,  what  you  learn  keep  to 
yourself;  or  in  other  words,  do  not  lend 
your  book  to  anyone,  for  as  the  saying 
goes,  “one  man  prospers  by  his  fellow- 
man’s  downfall.”  So  do  not  assist  in 
your  own  downfall. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  not  one 
Motorman  in  twenty  thoroughly  under- 
stands his  motors,  I feel  that  I am  giving 
them  great  value  for  their  money,  and  at 
the  same  time  furnishing  them  with  the 
means  of  holding  a position  on  any  line 
they  may  be  employed  on.  While  serv- 
ing as  foreman  in  different  car  houses,  the 
author  has  been  able  to  gain  a great 
many  pointers  that  will  come  up  on  the 
examination  of  Motormen  and  conductors, 
and  having  possessed  these,  together 
with  my  knowledge  of  electricity,  I feel 
perfectly  safe  in  stating  that  they  cannot 
ask  you  any  question  that  I have  not  hon- 
estly and  correctly  answered  in  this  little 
book.  If  you  wish  to  learn  the  value  of  this 

7 


book,  go  to  your  electrician,  or  man  in 
charge  of  your  motors,  and  ask  him  for  in- 
formation, and  then,  and  not  until  then, will 
you  learn  the  true  value  of  this  book.  It 
has  always  been  understood  by  all  elec- 
tricians or  foremen  of  car  houses;  that  no 
information  of  any  importance  be  given 
to  anyone  outside  of  their  class,  and  con- 
sequently most  men  running  cars  to-day 
are  ignorant  of  their  motors . 

Now  that  I have  dissolved  partnership 
with  that  class  of  people,  I am  at  liberty 
to  impart  to  Motormen  and  conductors 
how  to  thoroughly  understand  and  man 
their  machines,  regardless  of  what  my 
brother  electricians  may  deem  fit  to  say 
or  think  about  me.  I have  honestly 
served  my  time,  and  think  I have  a right 
to  suit  my  own  pleasure  in  regard  to 
what  use  I make  of  my  experience. 

Having  been  a Motorman  myself  I 
know  how  insignificant  a man  is  and  how 
small  he  feels  when  running  a car  with 
no  knowledge  whatever  of  his  motors. 

It  has  been  my  experience  to  see  hun- 

8 


dreds  of  cars  turned  in  off  the  road  by 
Motormen  who  were  asked  by  housemen 
what  the  trouble  was.  Well,  of  course 
their  answer  would  be,  simply  “I  don't 
know.” 

And  they  should  not  be  held  responsi-i 
ble  for  what  they  have  had  no  chance  or' 
opportunity  to  learn. 

It  will  be  well  for  me  state  here  that  it 
is  the  earnest  desire  of  every  company 
owning  and  operating  electric  roads  to 
have  each  and  everyone  of  their  em- 
ployees thoroughly  understand  the  com- 
plete workings  of  their  motors,  for  it) 
would  be  a saving  of  thousands  of  dollars) 
each  year  to  them. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  the  same 
amount  of  money  in  the  different  electric 
companies'  pockets  to  keep  the  men  in 
ignorance. 

Now,  then,  you  are  aware  that  neither 
of  the  companies  will  protect  you  in 
ignorance,  so  it  behooves  you  to  work 
out  your  own  salvation,  and  the  sooner 


9 


you  grasp  the  opportunity,  the  better  for 
you  and  your  family. 

I propose  to  write  this  book  just  as  I 
.have  learned  it  from  actual  experience 
land  hard  work  on  motors,  and  it  will  be 
more  valuable  to  you  than  a book  written 
by  highly  educated  electricians  where 
nothing  but  highly  electrical  terms  and 
phrases  are  used. 

There  are  a number  of  such  books 
now  on  the  market  that  Motormen  have 
bought  at  fancy  prices  and  after  reading 
they  are  just  as  much  in  the  dark  as 
before  they  read  them.  In  fact  they  sel- 
dom look  at  them  the  second  time,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  the  Motormen  of 
to-day  are  totally  unprepared  for  such 
works,  and  cannot  understand  them. 

It  is  foreign  reading  to  them  and  was 
never  intended  to  give  them  any  informa- 
tion of  what  they  ought  to  know. 
Knowing  the  above  statement  to  be 
facts,  I propose  to  write  this  book  in 
plain  Motorman’s  language,  starting  in 
from  the  very  beginning  the  same  as  if 

10 


you  had  never  seen  a car,  and  carry  you 
right  along  through,  explaining  in  detail 
every  part  of  a street  car  motor,  and  will 
confine  myself  to  actual  information 
necessary  to  the  Motorman. 


\ 


11 


JL  Practical  PQotorniaij. 


Gar  Hlirirjg. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  each  and 
every  Motorman  should  thoroughly  un- 
derstand how  a car  is  wired,  and  then  in 
case  one  of  the  connections  break,  he  can 
readily  find  it  and  repair  it.  You  will 
find  in  this  pocket  edition  a complete 
drawing  of  the  wiring  of  a car  with  two 
motors  wired  in  multiple. 

By  following  very  closely  the  explana- 
tion here  given  with  your  drawing  before 
you,  it  will  be  very  easy  to  understand  it, 
and  it  will  enable  you  to  trace  your  cur- 
rent from  the  trolley  wire  through  the 
different  parts  of  your  car  to  the  ground. 

Commencing  at  the  trolley  head,  or 
wheel,  it  is  received  from  the  trolley  wire 


12 


thence  down  the  trolley  pole  to  trolley 
stand,  there  you  will  find  the  first  con- 
nection made  connecting  your  trolley 
with  the  car  wire.  Your  current  and 
wire  leads  from  the  trolley  stand  to  the 
front  over-head  cut-out  box,  where  two 
connections  are  made;  crossing  same, 
returns  along  roof  of  car  to  rear  over- 
head cut-out  box,  where  also  two  connec- 
tions are  found;  crossing  cut-out  box, 
wire  runs  down  corner  post  of  car  to  the 
fuse  box  with  two  more  connections,  it 
runs  to  the  lightning  arrester  crossing^ 
with  two  connections. 

After  leaving  the  lightning  arrester  it 
runs  along  the  flooring  of  your  car  to  che 
controller,  or  resistance  coils,  which 
receives  it  with  one  connection  and  dis- 
patches it  with  another. 

Leaving  resistance  coils  it  runs  direct 
to  your  field  coils  through  what  is  termed 
the  end  wire,  where  a connection  is  made. 

Passing  through  the  field  coils  it  re- 
turns out  of  the  same  through  the  field 


13 


ground-wire  where  a connection  is  made 
with  the  fields  and  field  ground-wire. 

It  next  runs  direct  to  the  reverse 
switch;  connecting  with  same  it  crosses 
and  connects  with  the  positive  brush 
lead,  which  conducts  it  to  the  commuta- 
tor where  a connection  is  made  on  to  the 
brush  or  carbon  holder. 

It  is  then  received  by  the  armature 
from  the  commutator.  Passing  through 
the  armature  it  returns  through  and  is 
received  by  the  negative  brush  lead  and 
conducted  back  to  the  reverse  switch 
with  same  connections  made  as  when 
crossing  before. 

Crossing  reverse  switch,  it  is  received 
by  the  motor  ground- wire  which  runs  to 
and  is  connected  on  to  the  front  end  of 
motor  casing. 

The  above  is  a correct  illustration  of 
car  wiring  and  current  tracing,  and  when 
reading,  by  frequent  reference  to  the 
accompanying  cut  or  drawing,  can  be 
readily  understood. 

The  high  speed  or  loop  wire  takes  the 

14 


same  course  as  the  end  wire  connected  to 
your  controller,  with  all  resistance  cut  on! 
it  runs  direct  to  the  field  coils,  side  by 
side  with  your  end  wire,  passing  through 
field  coils,  returns  through  and  out  field 
ground  wire;  there  is  only  one  field 
ground-wire  and  consequently  the  fields 
discharge  the  current  received  from  both 
the  loop  and  end  wire  through  the  same 
wire.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  field  coils  receive  current  from 
one  wire  at  a time;  when  receiving  from 
the  end  wire  the  loop  is  cut  out,  also 
when  receiving  from  the  loop  wire  the  end 
wire  is  cut  out. 

The  current  received  by  the  field  coils 
through  the  loop  or  high-speed  wire 
returns  out  the  field  ground-wire,  and 
runs  direct  to  the  reverse  switch,  cross- 
ing same,  to  positive  brush  lead,  thence 
to  commutator,  into  armature.  Out  of 
armature,  through  negative  brush  lead, 
back  to  reverse  switch,  crossing  to  motor 
ground-wire  to  the  casing  on  motor. 


15 


Terminal  or  Field  Wires 


There  are  three  wires  leading  into  the 
field-coils,  and  it  is  very  necessary  for  a 
Motorman  to  know  and  be  able  to  distin- 
guish one  from  another,  which  is  very 
easily  done  if  you  will  pay  strict  attention 
to  the  following  description. 

The  inside  wire  on  each  field  coil  is  the 
end  wire.  To  be  more  sure  and  explicit, 
we  will  say  the  wire  nearest  the  gearing, 
on  the  opposite  motor,  is  the  end  wire. 
The  location  of  the  end  wire  can  be  more 
readily  understood  after  we  locate  the 
loop  and  field  ground-wire. 

The  loop  or  high-speed  wire  is  the  cen- 
ter or  middle  wire.  The  outside  wire  on 
each  machine  is  the  field  ground  wire,  or 
the  wire  nearest  the  ends  of  the  car. 

By  referring  to  the  car-wiring  cut  with 
the  above  explanation  you  can  post  your- 
self thoroughly,  and  know  positively 
which  wires  to  disconnect  in  case  one  of 
your  motors  becomes  disabled. 


16 


How  to  Locate  Trouble  in  a Car 
while  Running  on  the  Road 


This,  perhaps,  is  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lem a Motorman  is  called  upon  to  solve, 
and  one  which  occurs  to  him  almost 
daily.  It  does  not  matter  whether  a 
motor  is  new  or  old,  there  is  quite  a num- 
ber of  things  could  happen  to  it  at  any 
moment,  and  you  want  to  be  posted  so 
as  to  be  able  to  locate  and  fix  it  quickly 
and  make  time. 

If  your  car,  while  on  the  road,  should 
lose  the  power,  and  fail  to  respond  to 
your  -controller,  first  ascertain  if  the 
trouble  is  at  the  power  station  by  trying 
your  light  circuit.  If  your  lamps  light 
you  know  the  trouble  is  in  your  car;  such 
being  the  case,  you  will  examine  the 
overhead  cutout  switches,  as  some  mis- 
chievous person  may  have  thrown  one  of 
them  off.  Finding  both  switches  O.  K., 
examine  your  fuse,  as  they  often  melt  off. 
Finding  this  O.  K.,  next  examine  your 
reversing  switch  by  throwing  switch  both 


17 


ways,  as  quite  often  cars  will  throw  the 
reverse  on  the  center  while  rounding  a 
curve,  especially  cars  equipped  with  cable 
controllers.  I have  seen  quite  a number 
of  cars  laid  out  on  the  road  from  this 
cause  aloe,  the  Motorman  having  exam- 
ined the  car  thoroughly,  and  overlooking 
this  particular  part.  Finding  this  O.  K., 
it  is  then  necessary  for  you  to  run  over 
all  connections,  as  one  of  them  may  have 
broken  off.  If  you  find  them  all  intact, 
you  have  performed  all  the  duty  that  is 
expected  of  you,  for  if  the  trouble  is  not 
found  by  the  above  inspection,  it  lies  in 
your  motors,  and  is  beyond  your  reach, 
consequently  you  will  not  be  held  respon- 
sible. 

A Motorman  cannot  be  too  thorough 
in  his  investigations,  for  he  can  easily 
overlook  a broken  feed  wire,  which  if 
found  after  his  reporting  everything  O.  K. 
would  place  him  in  an  unfavorable  light 
with  the  electrician  or  house  foreman  in 
charge. 

It  is  very  easy  for  every  man  to  famil- 
iarize himself  with  every  connection  on  or 

18 


about  his  car,  as  you  have  an  abundance 
of  time  while  on  the  road  or  at  the  car 
house.  Practice  makes  perfect,  and  if 
you  will  study  a little  along  with  your 
practice,  you  will  be  rewarded  for  so 
doing,  as  a man  who  thoroughly  under- 
stands his  car  and  its  workings  is  soon 
found  out  and  receives  more  than  ordin- 
ary attention  both  from  his  employer  and 
his  fellow  men. 


The  Proper  Way  to  Cut  Out  Dif- 
ferent Motors 


There  are  a great  many  Motormen  who 
do  not  know  how  to  intelligently  cut  a 
motor  out  of  circuit  in  case  it  gets  dis- 
abled, and  this  information  is  intended 
for  those  who  do  not  know;  who  have 
tried  to  get  it  in  vain.  I have  seen  cars 
brought  in  off  the  road  with  every  wire 
disconnected  that  the  Motorman  could 
find  about  the  machine.  In  such  cases 
the  men  are  only  guessing  at  the  result 

19 


and  consequently  are  scared  half  to  death 
for  fear  they  have  done  something  that 
will  incur  the  displeasure  of  the  electric- 
ian in  charge. 

There  are  different  ways  of  cutting  out 
a motor.  . One  way  is  simple  and  quick: 
remove  the  carbons  or  brushes.  But  it 
will  be  well  for  me  to  state  that  removing 
the  brushes  will  not  be  allowed  by  some 
electricians,  as  it  is  not  the  safest  plan  on 
account  of  some  brush  holders  coming  in 
too  close  contact  with  your  commutator. 
If  you  can  get  permission  from  your  elec- 
trician in  charge  to  cut  out  a motor  by 
removing  the  brushes,  it  would  be  easier 
for  you  and  would  exonerate  you  in  case 
of  trouble. 

The  proper  and  safest  way  is  to  discon- 
nect the  end  and  loop  wires  from  the 
terminal  board,  which  makes  you  abso- 
lutely safe.  This  can  be  done  very 
quickly  if  you  have  a small  wrench  at 
hand.  Remove  the  small  bolts  or  screws 
that  hold  the  wires  to  the  field  coils  or 
terminal  board.  After  removing  bolts  or 


20 


screws,  bend  wire  back  and  away  from 
connections,  replace  bolts  and  your  motor 
is  dead  and  free  from  harm.  The 
above  method  of  cutting  out  a motor 
only  pertains  to  the  general  electric 
system  equipped  with  the  rheostat 
controller,  but  may  be  applied  to 
the  J controller,  providing  you  are 
close  to  the  car  house  and  do  not  have  a 
very  great  distance  to  travel,  as  cutting 
out  a motor  equipped  with  the  J con- 
troller by  removing  the  brushes*  your 
motor  in  circuit  will  not  respond  until 
the  third  speed  notch  is  reached,  which 
gives  a heavy  jerk  to  your  machinery. 
All  controllers  on  cars  equipped  with  the 
general  electric  system  are  fast  being 
supplanted  by  their  latest  type  of  con- 
troller, known  as  form  K,  and  it  seems  to 
meet  a more  universal  approval  than  any 
other  yet  devised.  The  controller  known 
as  form  K can  be  used  with  a single 
equipped  motor  if  desired,  but  it  has  been 
designed  for  use  where  double  motor 
equipments  are  used.  At  the  base  of 


21 


each  controller  will  be  found  two  double 
throw  switches,  by  which  either  motor 
can  be  cut  out  of  circuit.  When  it  is 
desired  that  both  motors  should  be  in 
circuit,  as  is  ordinarily  the  case,  both 
switches  should  be  down.  To  cut  out 
motor  number  one  (which  is  motor  near- 
est fuse  box)  throw  up  left-hand  switch, 
leaving  right-hand  switch  down;  to  cut 
out  motor  number  two  (which  is  the 
motor  farthest  from  fuse  box)  throw  up 
right-hand  switch,  leaving  left-hand  switch 
down. 


Instructions  for  Operating  and 
Care  of  K Controllers 


When  using  this  controller  at  one  end 
of  the  car  the  position  of  cut-out  switch 
in  the  other  controller  is  immaterial  if 
the  idle  controller  is  at  “off”  position. 

The  following  method  will  inform  you 
bow  to  keep  this  controller  in  good  con- 
dition. To  examine  this  controller,  open 


22 


cover,  remove  bolt  with  wrench  attached 
and  swing  around  the  pole  piece  of  the 
magnet,  which  will  expose  to  your  view 
the  cylinder  contacts,  which  should  always 
be  kept  clean. 

The  reversing  cylinder  is  also  accessi- 
ble as  soon  as  the  cover  has  been  swung 
open.  ^ The  cylinder  plates  and  fingers 
resting  on  them  should  be  given  par- 
ticular attention,  and  their  surface  kept 
in  good  condition.  A little  vaseline 
should  be  used  on  cylinder  contacts  to 
prevent  them  from  cutting.  All  bearings 
should  be  kept  lubricated.  In  operating 
this  controller  the  handles  should  be 
steadily  moved  from  notch  to  notch.  The 
position  of  cylinder  is  indicated  by  a 
pointer  moving  over  a dial,  which  is 
placed  on  top  of  controller,  and  the  posi- 
tion can  be  felt  also  as  the  cylinder  moves 
from  notch  to  notch.  The  motors  are  in 
series,  with  resistance  on  first  and  second 
points,  which  should  be  used  only  for 
starting.  On  fifth  point  motors  are  par- 
allel with  resistance.  This  point  is  de- 


23 


signed  merely  to  smooth  action  of  con- 
trollers, and  should  not  be  used  as  a 
running  point  under  any  consideration. 
To  secure  best  efficiency  for  continuous 
operation  use  points  3,  4,  6 or  7,  as  at 
these  points  resistance  is  entirely  short 
circuited.  Observe  the  above  rules  and 
you  will  have  no  trouble  with  this  most 
popular  controller. 


How  to  Locate  Trouble  in  a 
Reverse  Switch,  and  how  to 
Overcome  it. 


In  using  the  rheostat  controller,  your 
controlling  cable  often  gets  caught  on 
the  reversing  cable,  which  throws  it  on 
the  center,  thus  breaking  the  connection. 
This  same  trouble  is  liable  to  happen  on 
double  truck  cars.  The  reversing  cable 
being  slack,  gets  caught  on  the  truck, 
and  when  rounding  a curve  the  truck  will 
pull  it  on  the  center.  A Motorman  will 
do  well  to  watch  this  closely. 


24 


In  other  and  later  devices  of  car  con- 
trollers* the  reversing  switch  is  not  so 
liable  to  trouble;  but  nevertheless  do  not 
fail  to  examine  your  reverse  switch,  in 
case  your  car  is  dead,  for  ofttimes  the 
trouble  lies  there. 

Your  reverse  cable  or  rods,  whichever 
your  car  may  be  equipped  with,  sometimes 
become  broken  or  disconnected  at  the 
reverse  switch,  and  you  are  unable  to 
reverse  your  car  with  the  reversing 
handles.  Should  this  happen  to  you,  get 
under  your  car  to  the  reverse  switch  and 
pull  it  into  the  desired  position  with  your 
hands,  or  perhaps  you  may  have  to  use  a 
pry  to  accomplish  it.  In  either  case,  don’t 
fail  to  reverse  it,  for  it  will  go  to  show 
that  you  understand  your  business. 

On  roads  of  any  length  it  is  necessary 
for  you  to  know  how  to  reverse  your  car 
in  spite  and  independent  of  your  reverse 
switch.  In  some  cases  the  reverse  contact 
plates  become  soldered  together,  which 
makes  it  impossible  for  a Motorman  out 
on  the  road  to  use  it  in  any  manner.  If 


25 


such  a case  should  happen  when  out  on 
the  road,  and  you  could  not  use  your 
reverse,  proceed  to  disconnect  your  four 
brush  leads  from  the  brush  holders  and 
cross  them,  which  will  answer  the  same 
purpose  as  your  reverse  switch,  and  will 
carry  you  safely  to  the  car  house. 

If  your  car  has  only  one  motor,  the 
same  rule  will  work.  Cross  the  brush 
leads  and  the  car  is  reversed.  This  must 
be  practiced  only  in  extreme  cases,  such 
as  are  mentioned  above,  and  must  be  done 
correctly. 


How  to  Reverse  a Car  in  Order 
to  Obtain  Best  Effects. 


How  to  reverse  your  car  in  case  of 
accidents,  to  produce  the  best  effects. 

As  a general  rule  a Motorman,  while 
running  on  the  road,  is  not  looking  for  an 
accident.  In  most  cases  where  accidents 
take  place,  they  come  so  quickly  that  the 


26 


Motorman  is  totally  unprepared  for  them, 
and  consequently,  before  he  can  grasp 
the  entire  situation,  he  has  run  into  the 
object  in  question. 

From  experience  I have  found  the 
following  mode  of  reversing  to  be  most 
effective: 

When  you  see  that  quick  action  on  your 
part  is  necessary  to  avert  an  accident, 
which  compels  you  to  reverse  your  motor, 
first,  before  pulling  your  reverse  handle, 
pull  your  brake  on  with  your  right  hand 
as  far  as  it  will  go  with  one  pull;  which 
being  done  will  retard  the  momentum  of 
your  armature,  and  will  better  enable  it 
to  receive  the  current  when  you  throw 
the  reverse.  At  the  same  time  you  pull 
on  your  brake,  release  the  current  with 
your  left  hand.  By  that  time  you  have 
your  right  hand  free  to  throw  your 
reverse.  Your  left  hand  being  on  the 
controller,  you  turn  on  current. 

Turn  on  very  little  current,  for  }rou  can 
easily  turn  on  too  much,  which  would  have 
the  effect  of  throwing  out  the  breakers  at 


27 


the  house,  or  blow  your  fuse.  In  either 
case  your  power  is  losfc: 

Turning  on  too  much  power  would  not 
have  the  desired  effect,  (if  your  fuse  did 
not  burn  out,  and  the  breakers  at  the 
power  station  remain  intact)for  the  simple 
reason  that  it  would  send  your  drive 
wheels  spinning  on  the  rail  without  check- 
ing the  momentum  of  your  car.  So  it 
stands  to  reason  that  the  slower  your 
wheels  turn,  the  better  service  they  will 
render  in  stopping  your  car. 

In  most  cases  where  accidents  cause  a 
Motorman  to  reverse  his  car,  as  soon  as  he 
throws  the  reverse,  he  immediately  turns 
his  controller  right  on  to  the  loop,  which 
sets  the  wheels  to  spinning  so  fast  that 
his  car  goes  ahead  without  seeming  to 
mind  the  reverse.  Of  course  he  is  at  a 
loss  to  know  why  she  don’t  hold.  Some 
Motormen  condemn  the  car  and  say  it  is 
the  fault  of  the  machines,  when  rightfully 
the  fault  lies  with  them. 

There  are  extreme  cases  where  a Motor- 
man  does  not  have  evei:  time  to  release 


28 


his  current.  In  such  cases  a Motorman 
needs  no  enlightenment.  All  he  can  do 
is  to  pull  his  reverse.  That  will  show  that 
he  is  alive  to  the  situation,  and  will  save 
being  censured  by  the  Superintendent, 
who  would  certainly  ask  him  why  he  did 
not  reverse  his  car. 

A Motorman  who  has  acted  in  that 
capacity  for  any  length  of  time,  has  had 
it  thoroughly  drilled  into  him  that  up  to 
this  date,  as  a general  rule,  the  brakes  on 
electric  cars  are  inadequate  in  cases  of 
emergency. 

As  the  lives  of  passengers  as  well  as  his 
own  safety  depend  solely  upon  his  prompt 
action,  he  ought  to  be  exceedingly  care- 
ful, and  prompt  himself  on  every  detail  in 
connection  with  his  reversing  device,  for 
unless  you  know  how  to  reverse  a car  you 
will  get  very  poor  results. 

By  thoroughly  understanding  the  above 
method,  you  will  have  more  chance  for 
safety  than  if  you  go  at  it  blind  and  by 
guess. 


29 


Points  about  Motors  that  should 
be  Examined  Often 


It  is  much  cheaper  to  present  accidents 
than  to  repair  damages.  The  liability  to 
accidents  may  be  reduced  and  the  profits 
of  the  road  correspondingly  increased  by 
careful  inspection  of  the  apparatus  at 
regular  intervals,  and  this  should  be 
insisted  upon.  The  saving  in  repairs 
will  more  than  equal  the  cost  of  the  in- 
spection. A Motor  man  should,  on  arriv- 
ing at  the  end  of  the  road,  examine  cer- 
tain parts  of  his  car  without  fail.  To  do 
this  correctly,  and  feel  safe  when  starting 
on  your  return  trip  that  everything  is  in 
perfect  working  order,  you  will  first 
examine  your  armatured  bearings  and  see 
that  the  compound  lubricating  cups  are 
filled,  or  enough  compound  in  them  to 
insure  their  safe  running,  for  it  is  often 
the  case  that  armature  bearings  become 
hot  and  melt  the  compound,  which  will 
soon  wind  you  up  in  a disabled  condition, 


30 


whereas  timely  inspection  will  prevent 
this  trouble. 

The  next  part  to  be  examined  is  your 
carbons  or  brushes.  These  very  often 
become  broken  or  cracked,  which  will 
cause  them  to  arc,  and  if  they  are  run  in 
that  condition  for  any  length  of  time  will 
cause  your  commutator  to  become  so  hot 
that  it  will  short  circuit,  or  may  ground 
your  brush  holder.  In  either  case  your 
motor  will  have  to  be  cut  out  of  circuit. 

Brushes  should  make  good  contact 
with  the  commutator.  Reach  down  and 
take  out  each  brush  in  order  to  ascertain 
whether  it  moves  freely  in  the  brush 
holder.  They  should  not  bind,  as  this 
might  cause  poor  contact.  In  putting 
brushes  back,  get  the  same  brush  in  the 
same  holder  and  have  the  same  side  up. 
They  will  make  better  contact  if  put  back 
exactly  in  the  same  position  as  they  were 
found.  Notice  the  temperature  of  the 
field  coils  and  armature.  A loose  or  bro- 
ken connection  might  interfere  with  the 
proper  distribution  of  current  between 


31 


the  two  motors.  Do  not  allow  the  fields 
or  armature  on  one  motor  to  become 
warmer  than  the  other  motor,  for  in  such 
case  it  is  doing  more  than  its  share  of  the 
work.  If  you  cannot  remedy  the  trouble 
on  the  road  report  to  car  inspector. 

The  next  part  to  be  examined  is  your 
gearings.  See  that  they  are  not  running 
dry.  Examine  your  wheel  boxes,  and  if 
you  find  any  of  them  running  hot,  lubri- 
cate them  with  oil.  Next  see  that  your 
brakes  are  perfect  and  that  all  shoes  make 
good  contact  with  the  wheels.  Next  see 
that  your  trolley  wheel  is  true  with  the 
trolley  wire,  and  keep  the  wheel  well  oiled. 
The  life  of  a trolley  wheel  will  depend 
upon  the  quality  of  the  metal  of  which  it 
is  made  and  upon  the  number  of  miles  it 
travels.  New  wheels  should  be  put  in  as 
soon  as  the  wear  of  the  old  ones  is  suffi- 
cient to  cause  them  to  make  a rattling 
noise  when  running,  and  to  flash  badly 
when  passing  the  trolley  supports. 
Wheels  should  be  oiled  every  night  or 
morning,  and  the  Motorman  should  oil 


32 


them  during  the  day  if  found  necessary. 
The  more  frequently  they  are  oiled  the 
longer  they  will  last. 

The  tension  of  the  springs  in  the  base 
of  the  trolley  should  be  sufficient  to  keep 
the  trolley  wheel  firmly  pressed  against 
the  wire  at  any  speed  which  the  car  may 
reach.  If  there  is  a flashing  between  the 
wheel  and  wire  when  the  car  is  running 
fast,  this  is  caused  by  the  springs  being 
too  weak,  and  they  should  be  tightened. 
It  has  been  my  experience  to  see  trolley 
wheels  become  hot,  wear  off,  and  drop  to 
the  ground,  which  causes  any  amount  of 
trouble  and  annoyance;  for  in  such  case 
the  conductor  is  compelled  to  mount  the 
roof  of  the  car  and  hold  the  trolley  pole 
against  the  wire  until  the  car  house  is 
reached.  By  timely  and  frequent  inspec- 
tion this  trouble  can  very  often  be 
avoided. 

Motormen  having  examined  their  cars 
as  above  directed  will  merit  the  approval 
of  their  superintendent,  and  have  hon- 
estly discharged  the  duties  of  a first-class 
Motorman. 


33 


Short  Circuits — What  a Short  Cir- 
cuit Means— How  to  Locate  it. 


Perhaps  there  is  no  other  electrical  term 
so  much  used  as  the  term  short  circuit 
There  are  a great  many  Motormen  who 
have  heard  the  term,  but  have  never  had 
it  explained  satisfactorily.  As  a conse- 
quence they  call  every  little  trouble  that 
comes  along  a “ short  circuit.”  For 
example,  during  my  employment  on  one 
of  the  most  popular  electric  railways  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  of  which  I was  foreman, 
I was  called  out  on  the  road  one  night  by 
one  of  the  oldest  Motormen.  On  arriving 
at  his  car,  I asked  the  usual  questions  as 
to  what  was  the  trouble.  His  answer  was. 
“I  think  there  is  a short  circuit  in  one  of 
my  motors.”  I examined  the  motor  and 
found  the  feed  wire  which  runs  to  the 
controller,  burned  off.  As  a matter  of 
fact,  his  car  was  dead,  and  as  he  didn’t 
know  what  else  to  say  in  reply  to  my 
question,  he  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  his 
car  was  “ short  circuited.” 


34 


Now,  one  would  not  think  that  a man 
who  had  run  a motor  for  three  years, 
would  be  so  ignorant  of  his  machine  as 
that,  but  nevertheless  it  is  a fact. 

Now,  there  are  different  ways  in  which 
a motor  can  be  “ short  circuited;”  but 
the  term  means  that  the  current  has  been 
thrown  out  of  its  regular  channel  at  some 
point  before  reaching  its  destination.  For 
example,  some  of  the  lead  wires  come  in 
contact  with  another  wire,  and  the  insu- 
lation becomes  worn  off,  causing  a “ short 
circuit,”  and  causing  your  motor  to  jump 
and  jerk.  It  is  always  very  easy  to  locate 
it,  as  it  will  cause  an  “ arc  ” when  the  cur- 
rent is  applied.  Or  you  may  have  a short 
circuit  in  your  armature,  which  will 
always  show  up  in  the  same  way. 

You  can  most  always  find  it  by  having 
your  conductor  apply  a little  current 
while  you  raise  the  trap-door  and  watch 
your  motor. 

Such  short  circuits  are  generally  caused 
by  the  insulation  being  knocked  off  of 
one  or  more  of  the  armature  coils  at  the 


35 


point  where  the  wire  is  bent  over  the  end 
of  the  armature  core,  as  it  comes  in  very 
close  contact  with  the  motor  frame  or 
case  during  its  rotation,  and  once  it  is 
bare,  it  takes  but  a short  time  to  burn  out 
a coil,  and  sometimes  more,  which  incurs 
quite  an  expense  to  your  company  to 
repair  it.  You  should  use  every  effort  in 
your  power  to  prevent  it,  by  releasing 
your  current  as  soon  as  a jerk  or  jump  is 
felt.  Bo  not  proceed  until  you  have 
found  the  cause  of  it. 

Again,  if  you  should  run  through  a 
pool  of  water  deep  enough  to  come  up 
into  your  motor  case,  it  will  most  invar- 
iably “ short  circuit”  your  motors  by 
making  a contact  clear  around  your  com- 
mutator, which  is  supposed  to  be  insu- 
lated, one  bar  from  another.  So,  when 
you  come  to  a pool  of  water  on  your 
track,  always  give  your  car  speed  enough 
to  carry  it  through  the  water  by  gravity, 
or  release  your  current  before  striking 
the  water.  Also  open  your  overhead  cut- 
out box  thus  preventing  the  current  from 


36 


contact  with  the  water,  and  you  are  usu- 
ally carried  over  in  safety. 

There  are  a great  many  other  things 
which  might  be  mentioned  on  this  sub- 
ject, but  as  space  is  limited,  I think  there 
has  been  enough  said  to  teach  you  the 
difference  between  a short  circuit  and  a 
feed  wire  being  burned  off. 

It  comes  in  line,  however,  while  treat- 
ing on  cc  short  circuits,”  to  call  your  atten- 
tion to  the  trouble  caused  by  your  cur- 
rent becoming  grounded,  which  acts  in 
many  cases  much  the  same  as  a short 
circuit.  Ground  circuits  are  even  more 
severe  and  effectual  in  causing  your  car 
to  come  to  a sudden  stop,  or  blowing  the 
circuit-breaker  at  the  power  station,  than 
a short  circuit,  for  if  any  of  your  feed 
wires  become  bare  of  insulation,  and 
should  come  in  direct  contact  with  any 
portion  of  the  trucks,  you  will  experience 
quite  a sudden  jar  in  your  speed,  which 
will  lead  you  to  think  that  you  have  run 
up  against  a brick  wall,  or  something  of 
that  sort,  and  at  the  same  time  generally 


37 


knocks  out  a circuit-breaker  at  the  power 
station,  and  blows  the  fuse  in  your  car. 

’In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  not  a fre- 
quent occurrence,  but  nevertheless  it 
occurs  occasionally  that  your  commutator 
becomes  grounded  onto  the  armature 
shaft.  In  such  cases  the  motor  thus 
affected  will  refuse  to  work.  Sometimes 
it  will  cause  a flash  or  “ arc,”  but  in  most 
cases  it  will  just  jump  and  jerk,  and  you 
will  see  smoke  arising  from  your  motor 
casing. 

Should  you  have  a car  that  is  equipped 
with  a single  motor,  in  most  cases  it  will 
not  move  when  the  current  is  applied,  but 
stand  still,  and  if  you  should  allow  the 
current  to  remain  turned  on  for  a minute 
or  so,  you  will  bo  abl6  to  smell  that  some- 
thing is  burning.  But  in  such  cases, 
never  try  to  run  your  car  until  you  first 
cut  out  your  motor  that  is  grounded. 

Remember,  as  I have  already  explained 
to  you,  that  while  a short  circuit  is,  in 
some  ways,  very  much  like  a grounded 
circuit,  and  often  causes  very  similar 


38 


effects,  still  they  are  two  separate  and 
distinct  interferences,  and  should  be 
handled  with  great  care,  as  in  either  case 
you  are  liable  to  damage  your  motor  ser- 
iously if  you  fail  to  cut  out  the  disabled 
one  before  proceeding  on  your  trip. 

Then  there  is  burning  out  of  field  coils, 
which  is  quite  a frequent  occurrence  on 
roads  where  there  are  heavy  grades,  or 
where  high  speed  motors  are  used.  This 
is  caused,  principally,  by  an  over-taxation 
of  the  fields,  which  will  cause  them  to 
become  overheated,  and  this  unnatural 
heat  will,  in  time,  cause  the  insulation  on 
the  field  wires  to  become  charred,  which 
finally  allows  the  current  to  jump  across 
from  one  wire  to  another,  thus  causing  a 
short  circuit  in  the  field,  which  will  burn 
it  out  in  short  order. 

Now  if  your  motor  should  show  any  of 
the  above  mentioned  disorders,  and  you 
are  not  able  to  locate  it  at  once,  a very 
quick  and  reliable  way  to  locate  it  is  by 
cutting  out  one  of  the  motors — that  is  if 
you  have  a car  equipped  with  two.  After 


39 


you  have  cut  one  out,  try  it  by  applying 
the  current,  and  if  you  find  that  the  one 
you  have  in  circuit  refuses  to  run,  or  jerks 
when  the  current  is  applied,  then  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe  that  the  trouble 
lies  in  that  motor,  and  that  the  other  one 
is  all  right.  Cut  out  the  disabled  motor, 
and  after  cutting  the  other  one  in  you 
may  proceed  to  the  car  house. 

But  I would  not  advise  you  to  run 
any  further  than  is  necessary  without 
first  reporting  the  trouble  at  headquarters, 
as  you  are  liable  to  damage  the  other 
motor  by  so  doing,  as  you  are  now  mak- 
ing one  motor  do  the  work  that  is  intended 
for  both  motors  to  do. 

But  if  you  should  try  both  of  your 
motors  by  cutting  them  out  as  described 
above,  and  find  that  your  car  still  jerks, 
then  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  your 
trouble  is  caused  by  a short  circuit  or 
ground  in  some  of  your  wires.  But  you 
can  usually  determine  as  to  that  by  the 
way  she  acts. 


40 


Information  on  Incandescent 
Light  Circuits 


It  may  be  of  some  value  to  you  to  know 
how  to  prevent  yourself  from  being  left 
in  the  dark  in  case  your  light  circuit 
gives  out  on  you  daring  your  run,  which 
is  a very  common  occurrence. 

Every  man  who  has  ever  worked  on  an 
electric  road  for  any  length  of  time,  has 
either  had  his  lights  go  out  in  his  own 
car,  or  has  seen  some  other  car  going 
along  in  total  darkness.  As  we  all  know, 
it  is  very  dangerous  to  run  a car  at  night 
without  a headlight,  and  it  is  also  against 
the  laws  of  most  cities  to  do  so.  There- 
fore it  behooves  you  to  educate  yourself 
on  this  branch  of  street  railroading  suffici- 
ently to  be  able  to  cope  successfully  with 
any  little  trouble  which  may  occur  to  you 
while  running  a car.  By  so  doing  you 
will  avoid  being  looked  upon  with  disgust 
by  your  foreman  or  electrician  in  charge, 
as  it  is  really  disgusting  to  a house-man 


41 


to  be  called  away  from  his  work  to  go  out 
on  the  road  to  fix  a light  circuit  for  a man 
who  has  probably  run  three  or  four  miles 
without  any  light,  and  on  investigating  it 
finds  that  possibly  the  only  trouble  is  a 
lamp  burned  out. 

All  cars  are  equipped  with  a three-way 
switch.  Should  your  lights  go  out  on 
you,  begin  your  investigation  by  trying 
your  switch  both  ways.  If  your  lights 
still  refuse  to  work,  then  investigate  the 
lamps  on  the  inside  of  your  car,  for  if  it 
is  one  on  either  end  of  your  car,  or  more 
properly  speaking,  if  it  is  one  of  the  hood 
lamps  that  is  broken,  they  will  light  up 
when  you  throw  your  switch  the  opposite 
way  from  what  it  was  when  they  went 
out. 

After  trying  your  switch  both  ways  and 
they  still  refuse  to  light,  then  take  each 
lamp  from  its  socket,  and  if  you  have  no 
other  light  to  see  by,  light  a match  and 
hold  the  lamp  up  between  you  and  the 
light  and  you  can  see  whether  or  not  the 
carbon  filament  is  burned  off.  Try  each 


42 


one  thus  until  you  have  found  the  one 
burned  out — that,  is  providing  the  trouble 
is  caused  by  a burned  out  lamp.  Should 
you  find  one  burned  out,  replace  it  with  a 
new  one  if  you  have  one  with  you.  But 
if  you  have  not  do  not  give  up  and  run  in 
the  dark.  If  your  car  is  wired  so  as  to 
cut  out  the  front  hood  lamp  of  your  car, 
then  take  out  that  lamp  and  put  it  in 
place  of  the  burned  out  one,  and  when 
you  get  to  the  end  of  the  line  change  the 
hood  lamp  from  the  front  end  of  your  car 
to  the  rear  end,  and  thus  you  can  run 
until  turning  in  time  without  bothering 
the  men  at  the  car  house  for  a lamp.  But 
should  your  car  be  wired  in  such  a way 
that  all  your  lamps  are  burning  at  the 
same  time,  (except  of  course  you  always 
have  a spare  lamp  in  your  headlight — 
that  is  if  you  use  electric  headlights)  but 
that  is  too  unhandy  to  change  at  each 
end,  so  take  the  lamp  that  has  been 
burned  out,  break  the  glass  globe  and 
take  the  two  small  wires  which  lead 
through  the  butt  of  the  lamp  and  twis/ 


43 


them  together,  and  then  you  have  what  is 
called  a plug.  Keplace  it  in  the  socket 
where  you  took  the  burned  out  lamp 
from  and  turn  on  your  switch,  which  will 
give  you  a much  brighter  light  than  you 
had  before,  as  you  now  have  only  four 
lamps  burning  on  your  circuit,  and  of 
course  your  lamps  burn  at  a higher  volt- 
age. 

Now  remember  I only  recommend  this 
to  be  done  in  case  of  emergency,  and  you 
should  always  send  word  to  the  car  house 
for  them  to  send  you  a lamp  as  soon  as 
possible,  or  get  one  from  a passing  car, 
as  you  are  liable  to  burn  all  your  lamps 
out  by  burning  them  at  so  high  a voltage, 
if  you  do  not  replace  the  burned  out  one 
in  a reasonable  length  of  time. 

But  I consider  that  it  would  be  even 
more  reasonable,  and  meet  with  a more 
universal  approval,  even  should  you  burn 
out  all  of  your  lamps,  than  to  undertake 
to  run  in  the  dark  without  a light,  and 
thereby  cause  the  death  of  some  human 
being,  or  even  smash  a wagon. 


44 


Here  is  another  little  point  that  may 
become  useful  to  you  in  locating  trouble 
in  light  circuits.  After  you  have  examined 
all  of  your  lamps  and  have  failed  to  find 
any  of  them  that  show  anything  wrong, 
then  examine  your  light  circuit  switch,  as 
one  of  the  contact  plates  may  become 
twisted  or  bent  out  of  place. 

If  you  find  such  to  be  the  case,  pull 
down  your  trolley  and  take  your  screw- 
driver or  your  pliers,  and  straighten  it 
out  so  as  to  make  it  come  in  contact  with 
the  revolving  portion  of  the  switch,  then 
all  is  O.  K.  But  if  you  find  your  contact 
O.  K.,  then  examine  the  wires  leading  into 
the  switch,  and  see  that  none  of  them  are 
broken  or  burned  off. 

Next  go  on  top  of  the  car  and  see  that 
the  connection  at  the  trolley  base  is  not 
broken  off.  Then  follow  the  wires  along 
the  roof  of  car,  as  in  some  cases  the  trol- 
ley will  jump  off  while  running  at  a high 
rate  of  speed,  and  strike  a span  wire  and 
rebound  to  the  roof  of  the  car,  the  flanges 
of  the  trolley  wheel  strike  one  of  the 


45 


small  wires  and  cut  it  so  as  to  cause  it  to 
burn  off  after  a little.  If*  after  all  this, 
you  fail  to  find  anything  wrong,  (of  course 
always  ascertaining  that  the  fuse  is  not 
gone,)  then  you  should  return  to  the 
lamps,  as  you  are  most  sure  you  will  find 
the  trouble  there. 

Often  a lamp  will  become  useless  and 
refuse  to  illuminate,  and  still  the  carbon 
or  wire  in  it  will  look  all  right.  An 
incandescent  lamp  must  be  air-tight  or  it 
is  no  good;  and  sometimes  a lamp  that  is 
not  perfect  in  construction  will  work  all 
right  for  a time  and  then  all  at  once  will 
become  useless,  caused  by  a small  leak 
somewhere  around  the  butt  where  the 
globe  is  fastened  to  it.  You  can  locate  a 
lamp  that  is  disabled  in  this  way  by  taking 
a lamp  out  of  the  socket  and  take  your 
screwdriver  and  make  a connection  in 
the  socket  by  placing  your  screwdriver  so 
as  to  touch  both  sides  of  the  socket  at 
once.  Any  kind  of  metal  will  do  if  you 
have  no  screwdriver.  When  you  come  to 
the  affected  lamp  and  remove  it  and 


46 


make  the  contact  in  socket,  as  above 
described,  the  rest  of  your  lamps  will 
light  up.  Then  you  can  fix  the  disabled 
lamp  as  described  above. 

By  following  up  these  instructions  you 
will  seldom  be  compelled  to  call  for  help 
in  case  of  trouble  with  your  lights,  nor 
will  you  have  to  run  your  car  without 
lights. 

An  incandescent  light  circuit  is  a very 
simple  thing,  and  you  should  learn 
enough  about  it  to  be  able  to  care  for 
your  lamps,  as  there  is  seldom  anything 
seriously  wrong  with  them. 


47 


Electric  Motor  Force,  or  How  Ar- 
mature Rotation  is  Obtained,  etc. 


During  my  experience  as  foreman  of 
different  electric  car  houses,  I have  had 
the  question  asked  me  hundreds  of  times 
by  Motormen,  as  to  how  the  “rotation  of 
an  armature  was  caused.  It  is  a ques- 
tion that  is  frequently  asked  by  men  who 
are  ambitious  to  learn,  and  it  is  a ques- 
tion you  seldom  can  secure  an  answer  to. 
And  while  I do  not  consider  myself  com- 
petent to  give  you  a very  thorough  ex- 
planation of  it,  still  I will  endeavor  to 
give  you  an  idea  sufficiently  plain  to  en- 
able you  to  understand  how  it  is  accomp- 
lished. 

All  magnet  bars  have  what  is  called  a 
north  and  a south  pole,  or,  more  plainly 


48 


speaking,  a positive  and  a negative  end. 
One  end  is  the  positive,  the  other  the 
negative. 

If  you  take  two  straight  magnet  bars 
and  place  them  on  a stand  with  the  bear- 
ings exactly  in  the  center,  so  that  they 
will  swing  on  this  pivoted  stand,  then 
place  them  as  close  together  as  you  can, 
so  as  to  allow  them  to  pass  each  other 
without  striking;  then  place  them  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  give  them  a little 
start  and  you  will  find  that  they  will  con- 
tinue to  revolve,  as  the  north  pole  of  one 
will  draw  the  south  pole  of  the  other,  and 
when  the  two  opposite  ends  come  to- 
gether, the  speed  of  the  bars  (together 
with  their  weight),  will  carry  them  on  past 
each  other,  and  then  the  two  opposite 
ends  are  acted  upon  in  the  same  manner, 
and  in  that  way  motion  is  kept  up. 

When  a heavy  current  of  electricity 
passed  from  the  trolley  wire  through  the 
coils  of  insulated  wire  which  surround 
these  magnet  bars,  to  the  ground,  the 


49 


attractive  power  of  the  magnet  bars  is 
greatly  increased. 

I give  this  illustration  to  start  with 
because  it  is  so  simple;  and  still  it  may 
assist  you  to  comprehend  the  principle  of 
armature  rotation,  as  the  armature  rota- 
tion is  also  procured  principally  from 
magnetism,  and  all  magnetism  is  on  the 
same  principle,  although  it  may  be  brought 
about  in  entirely  different  forms. 

In  a motor  of  the  single  reduction  type 
there  is  but  one  field  coil.  This  field  coil, 
(which  is  the  magnet  coil),  is  placed 
around  what  is  termed  the  pole  piece. 
This  pole  piece  is  placed  on  the  inside  of 
the  motor  case,  and  is  as  near  the  arma- 
ture as  will  permit  its  rotation  without 
causing  friction.  The  current  passing 
through  this  coil  which  is  wound  around 
the  pole  piece  converts  the  pole  piece 
into  a very  powerful  magnet.  The  cur- 
rent passing  through  the  armature  also 
causes  it  to  become  magnetized,  and  the 
positive  side  of  the  armature  is  attracted 
or  drawn  to  the  pole  piece.  I say  the 


50 


positive  side  of  the  armature  because  one 
of  the  brushes  is  the  positive  and  the 
other  the  negative,  all  the  time,  and  con- 
sequently the  corresponding  side  of  the 
armature  is  the  same. 

Now,  I have  given  you  an  illustration 
of  how  the  negative  side  or  end  will 
attract  the  positive  end  of  a bar,  and  the 
same  rule  will  apply  to  the  rotation  of  an 
armature;  and  the  power  of  a motor  is 
obtained,  to  a certain  extent,  by  the  field 
magnet  having  the  advantage  over  the 
armature,  by  having  a leverage  on  the 
pinion  which  is  connected  to  the  ends  of 
the  armature  shaft,  which  works  on  the 
large  gear  wheel  on  the  axle.  This  lever- 
age can  be  ascertained  by  measuring  the 
circumference  of  the  pinion  and  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  armature,  as  the  differ- 
ence in  size  is  the  amount  of  leverage 
which  the  magnetism  of  the  field  coils  and 
the  armature  combined  has  over  the  pin- 
ion; and  then  another  reduction  in  the 
draft  is  made  in  the  difference  between 
the  size  of  the  gearing.  Without  the  ad- 


51 


vantage  of  this  leverage,  the  electric 
motor  force  would  be  insufficient  to  pro- 
pel the  cars. 

This  illustration  has  been  given  with  a 
view  to  make  it  as  plain  to  you  as  possible 
how  electric  motor  force  is  obtained. 
Realizing,  as  I do,  that  heretofore  any 
explanation  pertaining  to  this  subject  has 
always  been  kept  beyond  your  reach,  I 
have  thought  it  best  to  make  it  as  plain 
and  simple  as  possible,  that  men  with  a 
limited  amount  of  comprehending  ability 
may  be  able  to  grasp  the  idea. 


52 


How  to  Increase  the  Speed  of  a 
Oar  by  Changing  two  Connec- 
tions. 


It  is  the  ambition  of  every  Motorman 
to  understand  thoroughly  every  little 
detail  in  connection  with  his  car,  and 
while  it  is  my  intention  to  impart  to  them 
in  full  everything  practical  and  possible 
it  will  be  better  for  them  not  to  practice 
the  following,  as  I am  only  giving  this  as 
information,  and  “ where  ignorance  is 
bliss,  ’tis  folly  to  be  wise.”  As  I have 
hinted  before,  what  you  learn  keep  to 
yourself,  as  in  most  cases  proffered  infor- 
mation creates  a very  disagreeable  odor. 

I feel  as  though  my  readers  ought  to  be 
lenient  with  me,  and  not  practice  anything 
that  I impart  to  them  that  is  intended 


53 


only  for  information,  or  that  which  is 
calculated  to  educate  them  in  their  line 
of  work. 

Motormen  understand  that  the  speed 
of  a motor  is  gauged  by  the  winding  in 
the  armature  and  the  size  of  the  gearings. 
While  this  is  true,  there  is  still  another 
and  simple  way  of  increasing  the  speed 
of  your  car  by  disconnecting  your  ground 
and  end  wire  from  your  terminal  board, 
or  more  plainly  speaking,  from  the  field 
coils,  and  cross  them  and  connect  again. 
That  is,  connect  your  end  wire  in  the 
ground  wire  place,  and  the  ground  wire 
in  the  end  wire  place.  Remember  that 
the  end  and  ground  wires  are  the  outside 
wires,  the  middle  one  being  the  loop. 
This  being  done  correctly  will  increase 
the  speed. 


54 


General  Information  on  Westing- 
house  Motors. 


As  there  are  a vast  number  of  these 
popular  machines  in  use  in  the  United 
States,  I feel  that  this  little  book  would 
not  be  complete  without  treating  upon  a 
few  of  the  most  important  points;  and  if 
you  practice  the  following  instructions, 
you  will  be  able  to  handle  a single  reduc- 
tion Westinghouse  motor  with  perfect 
safety.  The  Westinghouse  electrical 
equipments  for  a car  consist  of  the  mot- 
ors, controlling  stands  or  platform 
switches,  two  overhead  cut-out  switches, 
diverters,  motor  cut-out,  lightning  ar- 
rester, fuse  block,  trolley,  lamp  circuit 
and  wire  cables.  Motormen  and  conduc- 
tors should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  equipments,  so  as  to  be  able  to  suc- 


55 


cessfully  cope  with  any  trouble  that  may 
arise  while  on  the  road.  There  are  five 
points  or  notches  to  the  controller,  each 
of  which  gives  a corresponding  speed.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  look  at  the  switch 
when  operating  it,  for  the  notches  are 
determined  by  feeling  only.  On  the  first 
notch  the  four  sections  of  the  diverter, 
the  field  coils  and  the  armature  are  all  in 
series.  The  succeeding  notches  cut  out 
the  diverter  sections  in  their  order  as 
numbered,  and  the  fifth  notch  leaves  only 
the  field  coils  and  the  armature  in  the 
circuit,  and  gives  the  highest  speed.  The 
upper  and  lower  bearings  of  the  cylinder 
and  the  small  wheel  at  the  upper  end 
should  be  oiled  occasionally.  Use  very 
little  oil,  and  don’t  allow  it  to  run  down 
on  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  contacts, 
or  rings,  should  be  rubbed  off  and  very 
slightly  moistened  with  grease  to  keep 
them  from  becoming  dry  and  cutting. 
The  Westinghouse  controllers  are  con- 
structed and  designed  to  give  the  car  a 
forward  motion  when  the  handle  is  moved 


56 


from  “oft”  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
hands  of  a watch  go;  and  if  they  do  not 
do  so,  it  is  because  they  are  connected  up 
wrong.  Moving  the  controller  in  the 
opposite  direction  reverses  the  car.  In 
cutting  off  the  current,  be  very  careful 
not  to  throw  the  handle  beyond  “ off  ” 
position,  as  this  would  reverse  the  mot- 
ors, The  handle  of  the  controller  should 
always  be  at  “off  ” position  when  the  car 
is  standing  still,  even  if  the  trolley  is  not 
on  the  wire.  When  one  switch  is  in  use, 
the  other  one  should  be  at  “ off.”  Don't 
try  any  experiment  to  see  what  would  happen 
if  both  switches  were  used  at  the  same  time. 
Before  placing  trolley  on  the  wire,  always 
examine  both  switches  and  see  that  they 
are  at  “off”  position.  Always  leave 
switches  in  this  position  and  remove 
handle  when  leaving  your  car.  If  at  any 
time  the  controller  should  not  work  freely, 
pull  down  trolley  and  remove  cover  of 
controller.  An  inspection  will  probably 
show  the  trouble  due  to  the  want  of  oil, 
roughness  of  contacts,  or  something  of 


57 


jxind.  To  start  tbe  car  forward, 
.^row  the  handle  to  the  left  from  “off” 
to  the  first  notch.  Allowing  the  car  to 
start  before  moving  to  second  notch, 
make  a pause  and  then  move  to  third, 
and  so  on.  Do  not  move  suddenly  from 
“ off  ” to  second  notch.  To  run  backward 
observe  the  same  rules,  but  move  handle 
from  “ off”  to  the  right.  Be  careful  to 
throw  handle  to  first  notch  with  the  first 
move.  Do  not  merely  move  it  far  enough 
to  make  contact,  as  it  will  burn  your 
cylinder  contacts  and  make  your  control- 
ler work  hard.  Never  reverse  your  motors 
when  the  car  is  running  forivard , except  in 
cases  of  extreme  necessity,  such  as  avoid- 
ing a collision,  or  to  save  life.  If  there  is 
not  time  to  stop  your  car  with  your  brakes, 
reverse  to  the  first  or  second  notch,  and 
keep  the  handle  there  until  your  car 
begins  to  move  backwards.  Don’t  move 
it  beyond  the  second  notch,  for  then  the 
wheels  might  spin  around  backwards,  and 
your  car  would  not  stop  as  quickly  as  if 
they  kept  revolving  in  a forward  direction. 


58 


Reversing  is  a severe  strain  on  the  n 
and  should  not  be  resorted  to  except  wli^ 
absolutely  necessary.  When  switching 
on  current,  never  jump  notches.  For 
instance,  do  not  throw  the  handle  from 
the  first  notch  to  the  third,  without  mak- 
ing a pause  at  the  second,  but  when 
switching  the  current  off,  throw  the 
handle  quickly  and  with  a single  motion 
to  “off”  position.  Don’t  go  beyond  this 
point,  however.  When  going  up  grade, 
it  is  advisable  to  work  at  the  fifth  notch 
most  of  the  time,  as  this  is  the  most  econ- 
omical position;  and  besides,  the  diverter 
coils  are  not  designed  to  be  used  contin- 
uously when  the  car  is  heavily  loaded, 
although  they  will  stand  it  with  safety  for 
a considerable  time.  Go  through  all 
curves  slowly,  using  first  or  second  notch. 
It  is  better  not  to  stop  on  very  heavy 
grades  or  in  curves,  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
Run  slowly  through  flooded  places  in  the 
track,  and  when  examining  motors,  never 
allow  water  to  drip  from  your  clothing  or 
hat  upon  the  motor.  And  always  re- 


59 


member  that  any  electrical  trouble  can  be 
quickly  stopped  by  pulling  the  trolley 
down  or  by  throwing  overhead  switch. 
The  Westinghouse  company  have  a very 
simple  and  easy  device  for  cutting  a motor 
out  of  circuit.  They  recognized  the  fact 
that  the  old  style  of  disconnecting  wires 
sometimes  confuses  Motormen,  and  have 
equipped  their  motors  with  a cut-out 
device,  which  is  located  inside  the  car, 
under  the  seats,  about  the  middle  of  the 
car,  a small  trap-door  being  cut  in  the 
panel  of  the  seat  to  permit  it  to  be  easily 
reached.  You  will  find  two  plugs,  pulling 
out  either  of  which  will  cut  out  the  motor 
on  the  respective  sides.  That  is,  pull  out 
the  plug  nearest  the  motor  that  is  to  be 
cut  out,  and  your  motor  is  dead. 


60 


Westinghouse  Fuse  Block. 


A fuse  is  placed  on  the  car  as  a protec- 
tion to  the  motors.  This  fuse  is  connected 
into  the  wire  running  to  the  trolley,  and 
is  situated  in  any  convenient  position  on 
the  car.  The  fuse  is  not  intended  to  melt 
or  blow  with  ordinary,  or  even  heavy 
loads,  but  is  inserted  as  a precaution  in 
case  any  of  the  wires  of  the  car  should 
become  grounded  or  crossed.  The 
capacity  of  this  fuse  should  be  deter- 
mined usually  by  the  conditions  of  the 
road.  Extra  fuses  should  be  carried  on 
the  car  in  a convenient  place,  and  also  a 
screwdriver,  if  the  latter  is  required  to 
replace  a fuse.  Before  putting  in  a new 
fuse,  pull  trolley  down  from  wire.  With 
a single  motor  equipment  use  a 50  ampere 
fuse;  with  double  equipments  use  a 75 
ampere  fuse.  Always  pull  trolley  down 
when  working  at  the  switches,  lamp  cir- 
cuit, lightning  arrester  or  fuse  block,  as 
you  are  absolutely  safe  if  you  take  this 
precaution. 


61 


The  Westinghouse  Lightning 
Arrester. 


Being*  entirely  automatic  in  its  action,  it 
requires  no  adjustment  after  each  discharge. 
Tt  should  be  examined,  however,  after  each 
storm  as  a matter  of  precaution.  By  remov- 
ing triangular  plate  which  closes  the  front  of 
the  arrester,  the  whole  interior  may  be  in- 
spected. The  swinging  arms  must  pass  freely 
through  the  holes  into  the  air  chamber,  and 
the  carbon  tips  should  touch  the  carbon 
blocks,  and  when  pressed  in,  should  move 
them  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  before  the 
flange  strikes  the  marble.  The  air  space  be- 
tween the  toothed  carbons  should  not  be  more 
than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch.  The  screws 
should  be  firmly  set,  especially  those  holding 
the  plate  on  the  window  in  the  air  chamber. 


62 


Westinghouse  Lamp  Circuit. 


The  lamp,  or  lighting  circuit  of  the  car 
usually  consists  of  five  100  volt  lamps 
connected  in  series.  Where  oil  head 
lights  are  used,  three  lamps  are  in  a group 
in  the  middle  of  the  car,  and  one  on  each 
platform.  In  this  case  a small  double 
break  switch  is  provided  for  cutting  the 
current  off  from  the  lights.  Where  elec- 
tric head  lights  are  used,  each  platform 
lamp  is  connected  in  multiple  with  a head 
light  connecting  block;  and  a two-way 
switch  inside  of  the  car  makes  it  possible 
to  throw  either  the  platform  lamp  or  the 
head  light  into  the  circuit.  The  lamps 
may  sometimes  refuse  to  light.  This  will 
probably  be  found  to  be  due  to  one  of 
the  following  causes:  a broken  or  burned 


63 


out  lamp,  poor  contact  between  one  of  the 
lamps  and  its  socket,  poor  contact  in  the 
switch,  a loose  or  broken  wire,  or  a 
blown  fuse.  The  remedies  being,  in  the 
first  case,  to  replace  the  defective  lamp 
with  a new  one;  in  the  second,  to  try 
every  lamp,  pushing  it  more  firmly  into 
the  socket;  in  the  third,  to  remove  the 
cover  of  the  switch  and  tighten  contacts. 
If  the  trouble  is  not  found  to  be  due  to 
any  of  the  above  causes,  you  should  resort 
to  the  advice  given  in  another  part  of  this 
book,  under  the  heading  of  “ Information 
on  Incandescent  Light  Circuits,”  which 
will  help  you  out  of  your  difficulty. 


64 


Information  on  Open  Circuits  and 
Sparking  Brushes. 


The  sparking  of  brushes  will  not  be 
noticed  if  the  armature  brushes  and  brush 
holder  are  in  good  condition.  If  there 
is  any  sparking  it  may  be  taken  as  an 
indication  that  something  is  wrong,  and 
may  be  due  to  any  of  the  following 
causes:  poor  contact  between  the  brushes 
and  the  commutator.  See  that  there  is 
no  looseness  about  the  brush  holder,  and 
that  the  springs  exert  proper  pressure. 
The  brushes  should  fit  closely  upon  the 
commutator,  and  not  make  contact  only 
at  one  corner.  See  that  the  brushes  are 
not  wedged  in  the  holders,  that  the  com- 
mutator is  clean,  and  that  good  brushes 
are  used.  An  open  circuit  in  the  arma- 


65 


ture  connections  of  one  motor  will  cause 
a heavy  current  to  pass  through  the  other 
armature,  and  this  may  produce  a steady 
flare  of  the  commutator.  A weak  mag- 
netic field,  caused  by  open  circuit  or  short 
circuit,  or  wrong  connections  in  the  field 
coils,  will  also  produce  a steady  flare,  due 
to  the  heavy  current.  If  the  field  circuit 
of  a motor  is  not  complete,  owing  to  a 
broken  wire,  a very  heavy  current  will 
pass  through  the  armature,  sufficient  to 
blow  the  fuse  on  the  car  or  to  burn  out 
the  armature.  An  open  circuit  in  the 
armature  will  produce  a greenish  flashy 
which  will  appear  to  run  around  the  com- 
mutator; while  a short  circuit  in  an  arm- 
ature will  be  made  evident  either  by  the 
fuse  blowing,  or  by  a jerky  motion  of  the 
car.  If  allowed  to  go  on  for  any  length 
of  time,  two  bars  of  the  commutator,  about 
1803  apart,  to  which  the  ends  of  the  open 
circuited  coil  are  attached,  will  gradually 
burn  down  flat,  and  the  insulation  between 
them  and  the  adjacent  bars  will  be  par- 
tially destroyed. 


66 


The  marks  on  the  commutator  will  serve 
to  show  which  coil  has  the  open  circuit, 
and  this  should  be  corrected  at  the  ear- 
liest possible  moment.  There  are  two 
ways  of  doing  this,  one  being  to  replace 
the  defective  coil  with  a new  one,  the 
other  being  to  put  on  a jumper.  To  do 
this,  the  canvas  cap  at  the  commutator 
end  is  removed,  the  two  ends  of  the 
defective  coil  disconnected  from  the  com- 
mutator, and  an  insulated  wire  of  the 
same  size  soldered  into  the  two  bars,  thus 
connecting  them  directly  together.  The 
coil  itself  is  not  disturbed,  the  ends  merely 
being  cut  off  and  insulated.  This  will 
not  visibly  affect  the  running  of  the 
motor,  and  this  jumper  may  be  left  on 
until  it  is  convenient  to  make  more  com- 
plete repairs.  A flat  bar,  or  bars,  will 
cause  sparking  and  blackening  of  com- 
mutator, and  should  be  remedied  as  soon 
as  found,  by  smoothing  down  with  a file, 
or  turning  the  commutator  off  a slight 
cut  and  smoothing  with  fine  emery  cloth. 


67 


Some  Questions  Which  You  May 
toe  Called  Upon  to  Answer. 


As  it  is  an  assured  fact  that  all  Motor- 
men  running  electric  cars  must  sooner  or 
later  pass  an  examination  before  a Board 
of  Examiners,  I will  now  give  you  a syn- 
opsis of  the  questions  you  will  be  asked, 
and  the  answers,  all  of  which  you  will 
find  in  this  book.  “ Forewarned  is  fore- 
armed/’ So,  if  you  fail  in  the  examina- 
tion you  will  have  no  one  to  blame  but 
yourself,  for  they  cannot  ask  you  anything 
that  does  not  actually  pertain  to  your  car 
and  its  workings,  as  you  are  not  paid  to 
know  anything  not  pertaining  to  your 
car. 


G8 


Some  of  these  questions  require  very 
lengthy  answers,  but  are  very  simple 
when  you  learp  them  by  heart,  and  by  a 
very  little  study  on  your  part  there  is  no 
reason  why  you  cannot  pass  an  honorable 
examination. 

You  will  be  asked  to  define  in  part  the 
term  “ short  circuit,”  which  has  been 
sufficiently  treated  in  this  book. 

You  will  be  asked  what  causes  elec- 
tricity to  heat. 

There  is  only  one  proper  answer  to 
this  question,  and  that  is  “ resistance.*’ 
Electricity  must  be  resisted  in  order  to 
cause  heat. 

You  will  be  asked  to  explain  the  term* 
“ ground  ” or  “grounded,”  and  its  causes. 
This  has  been  explained  in  another  part 
of  this  book. 

You  will  be  asked  what  kind  of  motor 
you  are  or  have  been  running,  their 
names,  and  the  amount  of  electricity  they 
are  built  for.  This  you  will  have  to  learn 
from  your  Superintendent  or  the  elec- 
trician in  charge,  as  I have  no  means  of 


69 


knowing  what  particular  make  of  motors 
you  are  running. 

You  will  be  asked  in  case  you  could  not 
reverse  your  car  with  the  reversing  device, 
what  you  would  do.  This  question  has 
also  been  fully  treated  of  previously. 

You  will  be  asked  in  case  certain  parts 
of  your  car  should  become  disabled,  what 
course  you  would  pursue.  This  question 
you  could  answer  correctly  by  memoriz- 
ing the  teachings  of  this  book. 

You  will  be  asked  to  trace  out  the  cur- 
rent, beginning  at  the  trolley  wire  and 
ending  with  the  ground  wire,  naming 
every  part  of  your  car  and  motor  as  you 
proceed.  As  I have  been  very  careful 
and  accurate  in  my  explanations  of  the 
current  tracing,  you  have  no  reason  for 
not  being  able  to  answer  correctly. 

You  will  be  asked  what  you  would  do 
in  case  your  car  becomes  groundedbe- 
cause  of  dirty  rails.  Most  Motormen  can 
answer  this  question,  but  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  have  not  had  experience,  I 
will  say:  connect  the  rail  with  any  part 


70 


of  your  wheel  or  truck,  with  a piece  of 
wire  or  any  piece  of  iron  you  may  have 
handy,  and  your  car  will  start.  All  that 
is  necessary  is  to  get  a clean  connection 
with  the  rail.  * 

You  may  be  asked  what  you  would  do 
in  case  your  controlling  cable  should 
break  on  a car  equipped  with  a rheostat 
controllor,  and  you  were  unable  to  use 
the  controlling  device. 

The  answer  is,  throw  off  one  of  your 
overheads  and  gather  up  your  broken 
cable  and  tie  it  up  so  that  it  will  not 
come  in  contact  with  any  other  working 
part  of  your  car.  Then  pull  your  traveler 
one-third  of  the  way  around  on  your 
rheostat,  and  control  your  car  with  the 
overhead  switch.  Take  advantage  of  all 
down  grades  and  run  by  gravity,  so  as 
not  to  heat  your  rheostat  any  more  than 
possible.  The  traveler  left  in  one  place 
on  the  rheostat  for  any  length  of  time, 
will  become  red-hot,  and  consequently 
burns  out  the  resistance. 

You  will  be  asked  how  you  determine 


71 


how  many  miles  per  hour  you  are  travel- 
ing. This  question  will  be  asked  for 
various  reasons.  For  instance,  in  case  of 
an  accident  that  would  result  in  the 
Motorman’s  arrest,  he  would  be  called 
upon  to  state  the  rate  of  speed  he  was 
running  at  the  time  of  the  apcident.  The 
manner  of  determining  the  rate  of  speed 
a car  is  traveling,  is  very  simple.  All 
you  have  to  do  is  to  count  the  number  of 
rails  you  pass  over  in  twenty  seconds,  and 
it  gives  you  the  number  of  miles  per 
hour. 

You  also  have  orders  from  your  Super- 
intendent not  to  run  faster  than  a certain 
rate  of  speed  over  different  parts  of  the 
road,  therefore  you  should  keep  this  rule 
in  mind. 

Other  questions  may  be  asked  you,  all 
of  which  you  can  easily  answer  by  keep- 
ing this  book  constantly  with  you  and  by 
frequently  referring  to  it. 


72 


t<?0 

16 


fkO 

1 

3 T:i 


Points  of  Interest  to  all. 


While  employed  as  a Motorman,  I was 
frequently  asked  by  passengers  as  to  how 
long  an  incandescent  lamp  would  last, 
and  I presume  my  readers  have  all  been 
asked  the  same  question.  As  we  all  like 
to  be  able  to  answer  such  trifling  ques- 
tions when  asked  them,  I think  it  will  be 
well  to  give  a little  information  on  these 
points,  as  many  of  you,  perhaps,  have 
never  heard  how  long  they  were  supposed 
to  last. 

An  incandescent  lamp,  when  used  as 
they  are  supposed  to  be  used,  that  is,  not 
overtaxed  by  higher  voltage  than  they 
are  manufactured  for,  will  last  about  one 
thousand  hoxirs.  That  is  considered  to 
be  the  average  life  of  a lamp,  or  as  long 
as  they  are  supposed  to  burn,  although 
they  will,  in  some  cases,  burn  twice  that 


73 


length  of  time.  But  they  are  not  guar- 
anteed by  the  manufacturer  for  over  one 
thousand  hours. 

Another  question  that  is  quite  fre- 
quently asked  by  the  traveling  public  is, 
where  does  the  current  go  to  after  it 
passes  through  the  motors.  This  ques- 
tion is  answered  by  stating  that  it  returns 
to  the  generators  at  the  power  station 
through  the  ground  wire  that  is  laid 
along  the  track. 

Some  one  else  may  ask  you  how  many 
revolutions  per  minute  your  armature 
makes.  Of  course  that  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  miles  per  hour 
your  car  makes.  If  you  have  a thirty- 
inch  wheel,  and  your  gearing  is  of 
standard  size,  then  your  armature  must 
make  3,379  revolutions  per  mile.  If  you 
wish  to  find  out  how  fast  the  armature 
revolves  in  your  car,  multiply  3,379  by 
the  number  of  miles  per  hour  your  car 
runs,  and  divide  it  by  60,  and  you  have 
it.  For  instance,  if  a car  runs  20  miles 
per  hour,  the  armature  revolves  1,126 


74 


times  per  minute,  an*d  as  they  are  very 
heavy,  you  can  see  by  this  what  a great 
strain  it  must  be  on  gears  and  pinions 
when  you  reverse  your  car  when  running 
at  a high  rate  of  speed. 

There  is  the  trolley  wheel  also  which 
causes  a great  deal  of  comment  and  argu- 
ment, as  to  how  fast  it  travels  on  its 
axis.  Very  few  men  running  cars  ever 
stop  to  think  how  much  wear  there  is  on 
this  little  wheel  which  travels  on  the 
wire  over  their  heads.  The  average  size 
of  trolley  wheels  is  about  nine  inches,  that 
is  in  circumference,  which  necessitates  it 
to  revolve  2,344  times  per  minute;  when 
you  are  running  at  a speed  of  twenty 
miles  per  hour  the  revolutions  it  must 
make  per  mile  are  7,040. 

While  speaking  of  the  trolley  I will  give 
you  a little  of  my  experience  in  regard  to 
how  I have  procured  the  best  results  from 
a trolley.  If  the  tension  in  a trolley  is  a 
trifle  too  weak,  it  will  jump  off  the  wire 
at  nearly  all  overhead  switches  and 
crossings,  especially  if  you  do  not  cross 


75 


them  very  slowly;  for  every  time  the 
wheel  strikes  a little  uneven  place  on  the 
wire  it  will  cause  it  to  bound,  and  it  sel- 
dom goes  on  the  wire  when  it  goes  up 
again.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you  have 
your  tension  too  stiff,  it  causes  unneces- 
sary wear  on  the  wheel,  and  when  it  does 
come  off,  unless  some  one  has  hold  of  the 
rope,  it  is  liable  to  break  a span  wire  or 
bend  the  pole,  or  perhaps  both.  My  ex- 
perience has  been  that  a trolley  gives  best 
satisfaction  with  a tension  of  about  fifteen 
pounds  at  the  wire.  That  is,  get  a piece 
of  iron  weighing  fifteen  pounds,  and  tie 
it  to  your  trolley  rope.  Get  up  on  the 
roof  of  your  car,  place  your  trolley  pole 
so  that  it  will  stand  at  an  angle  of  45  de- 
grees, and  then  adjust  the  tension  so  it 
will  just  balance  the  weight,  and  then 
you  have  got  a tension  that  will  give 
better  satisfaction  than  I was  ever  able  to 
obtain  from  any  other  amount  of  tension, 
and  I have  tried  them  in  many  different 
ways. 

That  disagreeable,  roaring  sound  which 
76 


is  caused  by  the  trolley  wheel,  and  which 
causes  so  much  annoyance  to  passengers 
can,  in  most  all  cases,  be  stopped  by  put- 
ting a little  oil  on  the  trolley  wheel,  as 
when  they  are  allowed  to  run  dry  they 
will  get  rough  and  soon  begin  to  cut  the 
pin  and  bushing,  which  is  the  cause  of 
the  noise. 

I speak  of  these  little  things  because 
the  man  who  looks  after  all  these  troubles 
in  his  car,  soon  gains  the  endorsement  of 
his  Superintendent  as  a good  man.  For 
if  he  keeps  everything  in  this  line  up  in 
good  shape,  he  is  sure  to  have  his  car 
running  much  smoother  in  all  respects 
than  a man  who  pays  no  attention  to  the 
working  of  his  machinery.  I am  sure 
there  is  a sufficient  amount  of  self-satis- 
faction in  having  everything  work  nicely 
to  pay  a man  for  what  little  extra  time  it 
takes  to  keep  them  up. 

"While  I am  allowing  my  pen  to  drift  in 
this  channel  (of  what  may  be  termed 
novelties),  I will  just  relate  one  more  little 
trick  of  the  trade  which  I have  found 


77 


quite  useful  in  a number  of  cases,  and  if 
you  have  heard  it  before,  I beg  your  par- 
don for  taking  up  your  time  with  it 
But  to  those  who  have  not  heard  it,  it 
may.  some  time  help  them  out. 

Once  I was  on  a run  that  made  me  the 
last  man  in  the  house,  and  I caught  a 
large  load  from  a party.  In  starting  on 
a grade  I blew  a fuse  and  found  that  I 
had  no  other  one  to  replace  it  with.  After 
looking  around  in  every  place  for  a piece 
of  wire  of  some  sort  to  use  as  a substi- 
tute for  the  fuse,  I was  at  a loss  to  know 
what  to  do.  All  at  once  I thought  of  a 
way  out  of  my  trouble,  and  opening  the 
car  door  I asked  if  some  lady  would  please 
give  me  a hairpin.  This  I got,  and  put- 
ting it  in  for  a fuse,  I was  enabled  to 
take  my  load  to  its  destination. 

Again,  should  the  carbons  or  brushes 
in  your  motor  get  to  making  a shrill, 
screeching  noise,  you  can  in  most  cases 
stop  that  annoyance  by  removing  the 
brushes  and  rubbing  a little  lubricant  of 
some  kind  on  them.  I would  not  recom- 


78 


mend  you  to  use  ordinary  oil  as  it  will 
gum  on  your  brushes  and  commutator, 
and  cause  them  to  flash.  But  if  you  will 
go  to  a drug  store  and  purchase  five  cents 
worth  of  vaseline  or  paraffin  gum  and 
use  it,  it  will  stop  this  disagreeable  noise, 
and  will  not  gum  up  on  your  commutator. 
But  never  put  on  but  just  a little.  This 
is  also  a good  remedy  for  a controller  of 
most  any  type  that  works  stiff,  as  they  do 
often,  and  thereby  making  them  disa- 
greeable to  handle.  Just  put  a little  of 
this  lubricant  on  that  portion  of  the  con- 
troller which  makes  the  contact,  and  you 
will  find  that  they  will  work  much  freer. 
I V * 

'I  'I 


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79 


l + Tr 


General  Electric  800  Railway  Motor. 

The  General  Electric  800  is  a four-pole 
Motor,  having  two  salient  and  two  conse- 
quent poles.  The  pole  pieces  are  cast  as 
part  of  the  frame,  and  the  field  coils  are 
secured  in  place  around  them  by  means 
of  removable  flanges.  The  field  coils 
have  been  designed  with  special  attention 
to  thorough  insulation. 

The  utmost  care  is  taken  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  materials,  tests  being  made 
with  samples  of  all  wire,  paper,  cloth 
and  tape  used  in  their  manufacture. 
Equal  precaution  is  maintained  in  the 
winding  of  the  coils  and  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  insulating  material.  The 
field  winding  consists  of  asbestos  covered 
wire  wound  on  special  formers  without 
any  spool  or  shell.  After  removal  from 
the  former,  the  coil  is  first  wrapped  with 
canvas  strips  and  then  immersed  success- 

80 


ively  in  oil  and  japan,  and  afterwards 
baked.  This  construction  results  in  a 
so-called  mumified  coil,  which  is  imper- 
vious to  moisture,  efficiently  protected 
from  mechanical  injury,  and  capable  of 
withstanding  such  excessive  temperatures 
as  may  result  from  overloading 

It  is  therefore  well  fitted  to  render  long 
service  under  the  exacting  conditions 
imposed  in  street  railway  work.  The 
armature  is  of  the  slotted  or  ironclad 
type,  with  Eickemeyer  winding.  The 
di«ks  forming  the  core  are  first  punched 
from  thoroughly  annealed  iron,  then 
again  annealed  and  japanned.  The 
second  annealing  after  punching  ensures 
a low  core  loss  by  removing  the  harden- 
ing effect  of  the  punching.  The  disks 
are  then  built  up  on  the  shaft,  after 
which  the  slots  in  the  core  are  carefully 
prepared  for  the  insertion  of  the  Arma- 
ture coil. 

The  invention  of  the  Eickemeyer 
Machine  wound  armature  coil  marked 
an  epoch  in  the  art  of  railway  motor  con- 


81 


struction,  for  it  made  possible  a design 
and  method  of  manufacture  whereby  a 
coil  of  general  excellence,  electrically 
and  mechanically  was  produced  and 
which  had  the  following  principal 
characteristics  : Durability,  interchange- 
ability,  high  insulation,  imperviousness 
to  moisture,  facility  for  repairs  and  cap- 
ability of  withstanding  excessive  heat- 
ing. 

The  General  Electric  Company’s  . 
Machines  have  become  so  ironclad  and 
durable  that  most  Street  Car  Companies 
have  adopted  them  for  use  on  their  re- 
spective loads,  and  I take  pleasure  in 
giving  Motormen  all  the  information 
possible  in  connection  with  them.  And 
any  Motorman  who  cares  to  study  a little 
along  with  his  practice  can  in  a very 
short  time  be  able  to  master  these  most 
popular  machines  as  there  is  nothing  so 
complicated  about  them  but  what  any 
man  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  under- 
stand by  memorizing  the  teachings  of 
this  little  book. 


82 


General  Electric  800  Railway  Motor. 


83 


The  following  are  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal things  a Motorman  should  thor- 
oughly understand  : Sparking  at  the 
commutator,  this  is  caused  by  many 
things.  The  Mechanical  causes  are: 
First,  looseness  o i commutator;  Second, 
untrue  surface  of  the  same  ; Third,  loose 
brush  holder ; also  brush  stuck  in 
holder  and  improper  pressure  on 
brush,  etc.  The  Electrical  causes  are : 
Broken  wires  or  connection  in  the  arma- 
ture, also  excessive  current  in  armature, 
weak  field  or  misplaced  rocker  arms. 
If  the  current  in  the  armature  is  too 
large  in  proportion  to  t.e  field  magnet- 
ism, there  will  be  a distortion  or  twisting 
of  the  direction  of  the  magnetism  from 
the  pole  pieces,  caused  by  the  magnetism 
of  the  armature  itself,  and  the  result 
will  be  that  the  non-sparking  position  of 
brushes  is  changed,  and  the  brushes  be- 
ing in  their  normal  position  will  spark. 
Any  spark  caused  by  this  or  by  mis- 
placed rocker  arm  will  be  a steady  flare 
and  will  not  be  worse  on  one  part  of  the 


84 


commutator  than  another.  If  it  comes 
from  field  trouble  it  will  vary  with  the 
position  of  the  switch.  If  the  contact 
surfaces  of  the  brushes  are  not  on  op- 
posite bars  of  the  commutator,  the 
machine  will  spark.  If  the  brush-holders 
are  in  order  the  face  of  the  same  should 
be  about  y inch  from  the  commutator. 
If  the  commutator  flashes  on  certain 
bars,  or  if,  when  running  fast,  points  of 
flame  seem  to  dart  out  from  the  brush 
and  extend  part  or  all  way  round  the 
commutator,  the  cause  is  generally  a 
broken  wire  or  connection  in  the  Arma- 
ture. An  armature  with  a broken  wire 
in  it  will  run  without  jerks,  but  with  less 
force  than  a good  one.  It  should  never 
be  allowed  so  to  run  as  the  sparking 
burns  the  bars  of  the  commutator  where 
the  break  is.  If  the  broken  wire  in  an 
armature  cannot  be  readily  got  at  to  re- 
pair, the  commutator  bars  on  either  side 
of  the  break  should  be  soldered  together, 
and  the  Armature  will  practically  be  as 
good  as  new.  One  coil  will  be  cut  out; 


85 


but  this  will  be  inappreciable.  Three  or 
four  or  more  coils  might  be  cut  out  in 
case  of  need,  and  the  armature  would 
still  be  serviceable.  The  same  thing 
applies  to  grounded  or  crossed  armatures 
where  only  one  or  two  coils  are  involved. 
The  coils  can  be  cut  out  and  properly 
separated  from  the  commutator,  and  the 
armature  may  be  good  for  service  again 
in  a few  hours.  Field  magnets  are  liable 
to  be  injured  by  overheat  or  by  mechan- 
ical causes,  and  in  some  cases,  might 
short  circuit  or  ground  when  cool,  but 
these  cases  will  be  very  rare.  Trouble 
with  the  fields  will  be  shown  by  irregu- 
larities of  speed,  and  by  sparking  at  the 
Commutator  as  described.  No  motor 
should  be  run  unless  its  field  is  in  good 
condition.  All  that  has  been  said  about 
the  causes  and  effects  of  different  troubles 
with  fields,  may  be  better  understood  by 
a careful  study  of  the  different  connec- 
tions of  the  motor  and  switches,  a print 
of  which  will  be  found  in  this  book. 

Every  man  who  works  on  or  about 


86 


motors  should  make  himself  'amiliar 
with  everything  in  connection  with  them. 
In  another  part  of  this  book  under  the 
heading  of  “How  to  IyOcate  Trouble  in  a 
Car  While  on  the  Road”  will  clear  up  any 
trouble  you  may  have,  and  as  a motor 
man  is  paid  for  what  he  knows  about 
motors  he  should  endeavor  to  increase 
his  salary  by  learning  his  machine  thor- 
oughly. 


General  Electric  Company’s  Series 
Parallel  Controller. 


The  purpose  of  an  Electric  Street  Car 
Controller  is  to  start,  to  stop  and  to  re- 
gulate the  speed  of  a car  in  the  most  con- 
venient and  the  most  economical  manner. 
A controller  is  put  in  the  care  of  a man 
knowing  little  or  nothing  of  the  theory 
or  practice  of  electricity  or  of  mechanics. 
The  mechanism  is  in  almost  continuous 
movement,  either  starting,  stopping  or 
changing  the  speed.  Currents  at  500 
volts  must  be  broken  thousands  of  times 
each  day  between  the  controller  con- 
tacts, and  when  in  operation  the  ap- 
paratus is  subjected  continuously  to 
mechanical  shocks  and  electrical  stresses. 
The  first  commerical  series  parallel  con- 
troller with  magnetic  blow-out  was  the 
Type  J.,  March,  1892.  The  form  E., 


88 


September,  1892,  came  next  and  was  the 
beginning  of  the  cylinder  controller. 
This  had  an  external  reversing  switch. 
The  form  K.,  February,  1893,  combines 
both  controller  and  switch  in  one  case 
and  has  remained  for  several  years  un- 
changed, except  in  details. 

The  various  controllers  which  are 
known  as  K 2,  K 10,  etc.,  are  simply 
modifications  of  the  K to  fit  them  to 
larger  or  differently  wound  motors.  No 
new  principles  are  introduced  because 
the  K was  in  its  original  form,  a practi- 
cally perfect  controller  This  being  the 
latest  type  of  controller  and  one  most  in 
use.  I have  taken  great  pains  to  make 
it  so  plain  and  complete  that  every 
motorman  can,  by  referring  to  the  ac- 
companying illustrations,  post  himself 
on  every  detail  in  connection  with  this 
most  popular  controller. 


90 


Description  First  and  Second 
Notches. 


The  annexed  cut  represents  by  arrows 
the  flow  of  the  current  from  the  controll- 
ing switch  through  the  various  wires  and 
field  coils  back  to  the  switch. 

When  the  switch  handle  indicator 
points  to  the  first  and  second  notches  the 
current  flows  through  the  three  field  coils 
in  series. 

The  current  leaving  the  switch  flows 
through  + B wire,  through  B coils,  re- 
turns through  — B wire  to  the  switch, 
thence  through  + A wire  and  both  \ 
coils,  returning  through  — A wire  to  the 
switch,  thence  through  + C wire  and 
both  C coils,  returning  through  — C wire 
to  the  switch,  thence  through  + Arma- 
ture wire,  through  brushes  at  one  side  of 
the  commutator  to  the  Armature,  re- 
turning through  the  brushes  at  opposite 
side  of  commutator,  thence  through  — 
Armature  wire  to  th£  switch,  thence 
through  the  cut-out  box  to  the  ground. 

93 


I 


Third  Notch 


Description  Third  Notch. 


With  the  switch  handle  indicator  on 
the  third  notch  the  current  flows  through 
+ B wire,  through  both  B coils  and  re- 
turns through  B wire  from  where  it 
enters  + C and  flows  through  both  C 
field  coils,  returning  through  — C wire 
to  the  switch,  from  where  it  flows  through 
4-  Armature  wire,  through  the  brushes 
at  opposite  side  of  commutator  to  — 
Armature  wire,  back  to  the  switch, 
thence  through  the  cut-out  box  to  the 
ground. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  when  the 
switch  handle  indicator  is  on  the  third 
notch  that  the  A field  coil  is  entirely  cut 
out. 


95 


Fourth  Notch. 


Description  Fourth  Notch. 


With  the  switch  handle  indicator  on 
the  fourth  notch  the  current  flows 
through  + A and  + B in  multiple  with 
each  other,  returning  through  — B and 
— A simultaneously  back  to  the  switch 
and  thence  through  + C through  C field 
coils,  returning  through  — C to  the 
switch,  thence  through  + Armature  and 
through  the  brushes  to  the  Armature, 
thence  through  — Armature  wire  from 
brushes  on  opposite  side  of  the  commu- 
tator to  controlling  switch,  to  the  cut-out 
box  and  thence  to  the  ground. 


97 


Fifth  and  Sixth 
Notches. 


Description  Fifth  and  Sixth  Notches 


The  fifth  and  sixth  notches  show  alike, 
the  current  flows  through  + B and  + A, 
through  B and  A field  coils  in  multiple, 
thence  through  — B and  — A simultan- 
eously to  controlling  switch,  from  whence 
it  flows  through  + Armature  wire  to  the 
Armature  at  the  brushes,  thence  through 
— Armature  wire  from  brushes  on  op- 
posite side  of  commutator  back  to  the 
controlling  switch  to  the  cut-out  box  and 
thence  to  the  ground. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  this  cut  that  the 
C coil  is  entirely  cut  out,  and  motormen 
are  requested  to  use  the  fifth  and  sixth 
notches  as  little  as  possible,  and  never 
for  any  distance  on  up  grades. 

With  the  switch  handle  on  the  seventh 
notch,  the  current  flows  through  + B,  + 
A and  + C simultaneously  through  all 


99 


Seventh  Notch 


the  field  coils  in  multiple,  thence  through 
— B,  — A and  — C wires,  back  to  the 
switch,  thence  through  + Armature 
wire  to  Armature  at  the  brushes,  return- 
ing through  the  brushes  at  opposite  side 
of  commutator  through  — Armature 
back  to  the  controlling  switch,  thence 
through  the  cut-out  box  to  the  ground. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  the  above  cut 
that  the  current  flowing  equally  through 
all  the  field  coils  simultaneously,  that 
this  is  the  best  notch  for  heavy  work. 

Note,  that  in  the  description  of  the 
course  of  the  current  in  the  above  cases, 
the  current  after  going  through  the 
different  combinations  of  field  coils,  is 
described  as  going  in  at  +■  Armature 
and  coming  out  al;  — Armature.  This  is 
true  only  of  one  motor.  With  the  other 
motor  the  course  through  the  field  coils 
is  the  same  but  the  current  goes  in  at  — 
Armature  and  comes  out  at  + Armature. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  two 
motors  are  hung  in  a reversed  position 
with  respect  to  each  other,  and  this 


101 


crossing  of  the  Armature  wires  causes 
both  car  axles  to  be  revolved  in  the  same 
direction. 

Noth. — In  repairing  field  coils  it  is 
essential  that  the  coils  be  placed  on  the 
cores  in  the  order  B,  A,  C,  counting 
from  the  keeper.  The  new  coils  sent  out 
by  the  Edison  Company  are  all  alike 
and  must  not  be  placed  on  field  cores 
with  either  A or  C coils. 


109 


Methods  for  the  Government  of 
Motors. 

The  amount  of  current  which  passes 
through  one  of  the  motors  at  any  time  (the 
condition  of  the  line  being  equal)  is  gov- 
erned by  two  things:  First,  the  speed 
of  the  armature.  Second,  the  position 
of  the  switch.  If  the  wheels  of  the  car 
could  not  move  at  all  the  motor  would 
soon  burn  out  if  the  current  was  left  on, 
even  on  the  first  notch  of  the  switch. 
And  on  the  other  notches  it  would  burn 
out  much  faster.  When  the  armature 
revolves  it  generates  a counter  electro- 
motive force  and  the  faster  it  turns  the 
greater  this  force  and  the  less  currents 
will  pass.  This  one  reason  is  why  care 
must  be  taken  in  handling  cars  off  the 
track,  or  where  the  wheels  cannot  turn 
freely.  This  is  not  the  only  reason  how- 
ever. Every  time  the  switch  is  moved 
or  thrown  on  or  off,  changes  in  the  mag- 

103 


netism  of  the  iron  of  the  motor  occur. 
Now  these  changes  in  magnetism  induce 
electro-motive  forces  in  the  wire  of  the 
motors  entirely  independent  of  the  elec- 
tro-motive force  derived  from  the  dyna- 
mo. These  forces  only  last  an  instant 
while  the  current  is  starting  or  stopping 
and  their  tension  depends  upon  the  vol- 
ume of  the  current  made  or  broken. 
Thus,  when  the  switch  is  thrown  on  or 
off  when  the  car  is  stuck  so  the  wheels 
cannot  turn,  these  inductive  effects  are 
very  heavy  and  may  subject  the  insula- 
tion of  the  motor  to  thousands  of  volts 
for  an  instant.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
reversing  the  motor  or  moving  the  switch 
or  shutting  it  off  before  the  car  has  gained 
proper  headway.  In  all  ordinary  service 
these  inductive  effects  are  inconsiderable 
and  their  force  is  largely  expended  in 
inducing  harmless  currents  in  the  copper 
spools  of  the  magnet. 

In  regular  service  of  cars,  with  trail 
cars  or  without,  there  will  be  no  trouble 
with  motors  being  overloaded,  provided 

104 


all  the  connections  of  the  car  are  right. 
The  motors  can  get  very  hot  without 
danger  but  are  less  liable  to  trouble  when 
they  are  cool.  Any  broken  connection 
on  a motor  or  any  other  electrical  trouble 
will  immediately  upset  the  balance  be- 
tween the  two  motors  and  the  result  will 
be  that  certain  parts  of  one  or  both  will 
heat,  the  commutator  will  spark  and  if 
the  trouble  is  not  attended  to,  and  the 
car  left  running,  serious  loss  is  sure  to 
result. 

Hardly  any  electrical  defect  can  exist 
on  a car  without  making  itself  known  to 
the  motorman.  The  speed  will  be  af- 
fected on  one  or  more  notches  of  the 
switch,  the  brushes  and  switch  will  flash, 
and  the  car  will  show  by  its  sound  that 
both  motors  are  not  working  together. 
The  quickest  way  to  locate  trouble  is  as 
follows:  First,  does  it  appear  equally 
from  both  switches?  If  not,  it  is  in  one 
of  them.  If  not  in  the  switches,  cut  out 
one  of  the  motors  and  try  the  other.  If 
it  works  all  right  on  all  positions  of  the 


105 


switch,  that  motor  is  good;  then  try  the 
other.  The  condition  of  a motor  work- 
ing alone  can  be  told  by  the  action  of  the 
car,  and  if  there  is  any  trouble  its  posi- 
tion can  be  learned.  In  the  ordinary  stop- 
ping of  a car  a motorman  should  never 
bring  his  car  up  with  a jerk,  but  should 
ease  up  on  his  brake  in  time  to  take  up 
the  loss  of  motion  in  the  gearing  so  as  to 
enable  his  armatures  to  make  a smooth 
start,  also  save  the  wheels  from  becoming 
flat. 

Westinghouse  S.  P.  Controller. 

The  pointer  in  ordinary  running 
should  rest  on  the  third  notch  for  slow 
speed,  and  should  be  turned  against 
the  stop,  (or  as  far  as  it  will  go)  for  full 
speed. 

Notches  i,  2,  4 and  5 are  to  be  used 
only  in  starting,  and  are  not  to  be  used 
continuously. 

The  use  of  notches  1,  2,  4 and  5 con- 
tinuously will  cause  damage  to  the  ap- 
paratus by  burning  out  the  diverter. 

G 


106 


The  reversing  switch  is  situated  in 
the  controller  case,  and  is  operated  by  a 
lever  which  goes  through  a slot  under 
and  to  the  right  of  the  controller  top. 
As  there  is  no  arrangement  on  the  con- 
troller to  prevent  the  reversing  lever 
from  being  thrown  while  the  current  is 
on,  motormen  must  be  extremely  care- 
ful and  not  change  the  position  of  the 
lever,  unless  the  controlling  lever  is  on 
the  off  position.  To  reverse  the  motors 
while  the  current  is  on  will  result  in  the 
destruction  of  the  reverse  switch,  and 
perhaps  the  entire  controller. 

The  fuse  box  is  located  at  one  end  of 
the  car  on  the  outside,  and  is  fastened 
on  the  platform  timber.  This  fuse  box 
is  provided  with  a removable  fuse  block, 
to  which  is  attached  the  fuse  consisting 
of  a piece  of  No.  12  copper  wire.  To 
renew  a fuse  the  fuse  block  must  be  re- 
moved with  the  fingers  and  a new  fuse 
inserted  into  the  binding  posts  and  the 
block  re-placed  in  the  box. 

When  both  motors  are  in  working 


107 


order,  the  two  plugs  situated  on  the  in- 
side of  the  controller  case  will  enter  both 
double  sockets.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  out  Motor  No.  1,  (motor  nearest 
fuse  box) , remove  the  plug  from  socket 
marked  No.  1,  and  to  cut  out  Motor  No. 
2,  (motor  farthest  from  fuse  box),  re- 
move the  plug  from  socket  marked  No. 
2.  When  you  have  one  or  the  other 
motor  cut  out,  the  motor  in  circuit  will 
refuse  to  start  until  the  pointer  has 
reached  the  fourth  notch.  Move  the 
pointer  from  the  fourth  notch  as  the  car 
accelerates. 

There  are  six  points  or  notches  to  the 
Westinghouse  S.  P.  Controller,  each  of 
which  gives  a corresponding  speed,  and 
all  of  which  are  passed  over  by  a single 
revolution  of  the  handle.  The  reversing 
is  done  with  a separate  switch,  the  handle 
of  which  projects  from  the  right  side  of 
the  stand.  The  controller  is  operated 
entirely  by  feeling. 

The  first  notch  throws  the  whole  re- 
sistance and  the  two  motors  in  series; 

108 


the  second  notch  cuts  out  half  the  resist- 
ance; the  third  notch  the  whole  resist- 
ance; the  fourth  notch  throws  both 
motors  in  parallel  with  one  another  and 
one  in  series  with  the  whole  resistance; 
the  fifth  notch  reduces  the  resistance 
one-half;  and  the  sixth  notch  throws  out 
all  the  resistance. 

For  the  best  results  the  following 
should  be  borne  in  mind: 

The  first  two  points  are  starting 
notches,  the  third  a good  slow  speed 
running  notch;  the  fourth  and  fifth  are 
intended  for  getting  up  high  speed,  and 
the  sixth  notch  for  the  most  rapid  travel 
and  best  efficiency.  The  reversing 
switch  has  three  notches.  The  central 
position  cuts  off  all  current  from  the 
motors,  and  is  the  only  one  in  which  the 
handle  may  be  removed  from  the  stand. 
The  other  two  notches  control  the  direc- 
tion of  the  movement  of  the  car.  The 
handle  must  be  thrown  forward  or  back- 
ward according  as  the  car  is  to  move 
ahead  or  back;  i.  e.,  throw  the  handle  in 


109 


the  direction  the  car  is  to  move.  A single 
throw  of  the  reversing  switch  reverses 
the  direction  of  the  current  in  the  arma- 
ture, and  such  rude  treatment  should 
never  be  resorted  to  except  in  case  of 
emergency,  for  it  causes  a severe  strain 
on  the  motors.  If  the  field  coils  or  arm- 
ature of  either  of  ycur  mot(  rs  get  too  h t 
you  should  report  it,  and  you  should 
particularly  notice  if  any  one  coil  or  part 
is  hotter  than  usual,  as  this  will  gen- 
erally indicate  something  wrong. 

You  should  notice  particularly  if  your 
car  takes  the  proper  speed  on  all  points 
of  the  switch.  You  should  watch  the 
overhead  line,  and  if  you  are  near  when 
any  wire  breaks  down,  you  should  en- 
deavor to  tie  it  up  to  the  nearest  pole  so 
the  line  will  not  be  grounded,  after  which 
you  she  uld  telephone  to  the  power  house 
that  it  is  O.  K. 

If  from  any  cause  the  current  is  shut 
off  from  the  line  causing  a general  stop- 
page of  cars,  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent all  cars  from  starting  at  the  same 


110 


time  or  immediately  after  the  current  is 
turned  on.  After  finding  out  that  you 
have  no  current  do  not  keep  trying  your 
controller  to  ascertain  if  your  car  will 
start  but  go  immediately  and  turn  on 
your  lights,  and  if  they  don't  burn  you 
have  no  current  on  the  wire.  Do  not 
star  your  car  the  moment  your  lights 
begin  to  glow  but  wait  until  they  burn 
bright,  then  start  and  run  slowly. 


Economy  Is  Wealth. 

Some  motormen  do  not  know  the  diff- 
erence between  a single  reduction  and  a 
double  reduction  motor.  For  the  benefit 
of  those  who  do  not  know,  I offer  the 
following  explanation. 

A single  reduction  machine  has  but 
one  pinion  on  the  armature,  and  one 
large  gear  on  the  axle.  While  a double 
reduction  machine  has  a pinion  on  each 
end  of  the  armature  and  two  gears  on  the 
axle.  For  speed  and  continuous  service 
the  single  reduction  gives  the  most  sat- 


111 


isfactory  results  and  consequently  are 
mostly  in  use  at  this  writing. 

A great  many  motormen  running  cars 
at  present,  if  asked  what  kind  of  machine 
they  were  handling,  single  or  double  re- 
duction would  not  be  able  to  answer  cor- 
rectly, for  the  reason  that  they  have 
never  had  an  opportunity  to  learn  the 
difference  between  the  two. 

There  is  another  point  I wish  to  speak 
of  that  is  generally  understood  by  most 
motormen  but  seldom  practiced,  and  that 
is  economical  running  or  the  saving  of 
electricity.  A motorman  can,  if  he  has 
the  inclination,  take  advantage  of  all 
down  grades  on  his  run  and  save  his 
company  many  dollars  in  a month’s  ser- 
vice. There  is  no  line  with  a time  card 
so  figured  up  that  will  necessitate  the 
power  being  used  continuously  over  the 
entire  route.  There  are  lines  now  in 
operation  that  call  motormen  to  account 
for  the  excessive  use  of  current. 

Some  electric  roads  I have  had  the 
pleasure  to  visit  have  adopted  the  method 

112 


of  placing  a recording  Watt  meter  on 
each  of  their  cars  which  registers  the 
amount  of  current  used  by  each  car,  and 
they  know  about  what  amount  of  current 
is  necessary  with  proper  care  on  the  part 
of  the  motorman  to  make  the  days’  run, 
and  if  the  motorman  in  not  economical 
his  empl  yer  has  the  means  of  knowing 
it,  and  consequently  his  services  are  soon 
dispensed  with. 

Never  go  back  on  the  ship  that  carries 
you  over,  but  use  every  advantage  at 
your  disposal  to  save  the  company  who 
furnishes  you  with  the  means  of  making 
a living  tor  yourself  and  family.  Save  all 
you  can  for  them  and  it  will  save  you 
your  position  longer  than  it  would  other- 
wise. 


113 


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Conclusion. 


In  writing  this  book  it  has  been  the 
authors  intention,  as  has  been  previously 
mentioned,  to  confine  himself  exclusively 
to  the  working  of  street  R.  R.  motors 
and  while  I have  not  endeavored  to  ex- 
plain each  different  type  of  motor  (of 
which  their  are  a great  many)  separately, 
still  I think  I have  given  you  just  such 
information  as  you  need,  and  such  as  you 
have  been  searching  for  in  vain. 

This  book  has  been  written  so  as  to  be 
utterly  devoid  of  all  theoretical  or  scien- 
tific explanations,  as  it  is  not  intended  for 
that  class  of  men.  It  is  gotten  up  for 
Motormen  only,  written  in  Motormen’s 
phrases,  and  confined  to  the  principles  of 
these  most  popular  machines,  and  as  the 
fundamental  principles  of  all  street  R,  R. 


motors  are  controlled  by  the  same  rules* 
I think  I am  giving  you  something  in  this 
book  that  will  prove  beneficial  to  you  no 
matter  what  type  of  motor  you  may  be 
handling. 

And  as  a conclusion  I would  say  that, 
if  you  will  commit  the  contents  of  this 
little  book  to  memory,  and  allow  your- 
selves to  be  governed  by  its  teachings, 
that  you  will,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
meet  with  success  in  your  attempts  to 
locate  and  overcome  little  troubles  such 
as  most  frequently  present  themselves  to 
you.  And  in  connection  with  these  teach- 
ings, keep  yourselves  familiar  at  all 
times  with  the  rules  and  orders  of  your 
superintendent,  (which  are  usually  posted 
on  the  bulletin  board),  and  there  is  little 
doubt  in  my  mind  but  what  you  will  be 
able  to  gain  the  endorsement  of  any  su- 
perintendent in  whose  employment  you 
may  be,  and  at  the  same  time  you  need 
not  fear  the  consequences  of  any  examina- 
tion which  you  may  be  subjected  to  as  to 
your  ability  as  a Motorman. 


In  writing  this  edition  it  is  the  author’s 
intention  to  make  it  indispensable  to 
every  man  running  an  electric  car;  to 
make  his  duty  more  of  a pleasure  than  a 
task. 

As  the  author  has  served  as  an  em- 
ployee of  several  different  companies,  and 
in  all  capacities,  he  feels  competent,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  is  his  duty  to  com- 
municate to  street  railway  employees  the 
following  method  of  behavior  and  obe- 
dience to  their  employer. 

Speaking  from  experience,  if  you  follow 
these  suggestions,  you  cannot  fail  to  hold 
your  position. 

It  is  true  that  companies  owning  and 
operating  electric  railways  are  becoming 
very  strict,  and  consequently  keep  their 
employees  in  a state  of  constant  fear  of 
being  discharged,  which  makes  their  duty 
doubly  arduous. 

Every  time  an  obnoxious  order  is  posted 
upon  the  bulletin  board,  or  an  order  that 
will  seemingly  make  their  duties  more 
unpleasant,  there  is  a general  kick  among 


the  men,  and  knowing  that  they  have  to 
submit  or  step  down  and  out,  puts  a rov- 
ing disposition  into  their  heads,  thinking 
they  can  find  another  road  that  is  not  so 
strict.  But  this  is  a mistake,  for  you  will 
find  them  all  the  same. 

Nine-tenths  of  all  the  men  running  on 
cars  are  always  looking  for  and  trying  to 
locate  the  superintendent  or  his  assistant, 
and  I don’t  know  of  a case  where  any  good 
came  of  this,  for  if  you  know  the  exact 
location  of  these  distinguished  gentlemen, 
you  will  commit  yourself  a thousand  times 
to  a spotter,  thinking  you  are  O.  K.  The 
ends  of  every  street  car  line  are  seemingly 
left  unguarded,  and  are,  so  far  as  the 
superintendent  is  concerned.  But  don’t 
forget  that  he  has  the  means  of  knowing 
every  move  you  make,  while  you  think 
you  are  safe.  Therefore,  if  you  wish  to 
retain  your  position,  or  even  if  you  do  not 
wish  to  retain  it,  you  had  better  adhere  to 
the  following  rules,  and  you  can  always 
obtain  another  position  in  case  you  wish 
a change.  Kemember  that  when  a com- 


pany  employs  you,  it  does  not  only  em- 
ploy you  to  run  its  cars,  but  to  run  them 
according  to  its  plans  and  dictation,  and 
knowing  that  you  have  to  conform  to  its 
rules  and  regulations  or  leave,  I will  say 
go  to  the  bulletin  board  and  familiarize 
yourself  perfectly  with  all  rules  and 
orders,  and  when  you  start  out  of  the  car 
house  with  your  car,  you  do  so  with  the 
knowledge  that  you  are  going  out  to  work 
for  your  family  or  yourself,  at  so  much  an 
hour,  or  a monthly  salary,  as  the  case  may 
be.  Go  out  resolved  to  live  up  to  every 
order  and  rule  laid  down  by  the  company. 
Lay  all  ideas  and  notions  of  your  own  of 
running  a car  aside,  and  adhere  strictly 
to  their  way,  and  the  way  they  pay  you 
for.  By  so  doing  you  have  dispensed 
with  all  fear  of  being  discharged  for  dis- 
obedience of  orders,  for  they  certainly 
cannot  discharge  you  for  obeying  their 
own  orders. 

If  you  discharge  your  duties  accord- 
ing to  this  doctrine,  you  can  face  the  Su- 


perintendent  at  any  time  without  fear  of 
having  incurred  his  displeasure. 

If  you  should  in  the  discharge  of  your 
duties  commit  yourself,  or  do  something 
that  you  feel  that  you  are  to  blame  for, 
at  your  first  opportunity  go  to  the  Sup- 
erintendent and  tell  him  the  exact  truth 
of  the  matter,  or  trouble  in  question,  and 
if  there  is  a spark  of  manhood  in  him  he 
will  set  you  right  by  requesting  you  to  be 
careful  in  the  future. 


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